LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived  If  8  £.  ,  /£9 


Accessions  No. 


Class  No. 


/:£ 


M-A.NTJA.il, 

OF 

OBJECT-TEACHING 

WITH 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS  IN  METHODS 

AND 

THE    SCIENCE    OF    EDUCATION 


BY 

K  A.  CALKINS 

AUTHOR  OP  "PRIMARY  OBJECT  LESSONS"  "PHONIC  CHARTS" 
AND  "SCHOOL  AND  FAMILY  CHARTS" 


lThe  art  of  teaching  is  no  shallow  affair,  but  one  of  the  deepest  mysteries  of  Nature  " 

COMEXIUS 


OF 

UHI7ZRSIT 


NEW    YORK 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  FRANKLIN  SQUARE 

1882 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


All  rights  reserved. 


TO 

THE  TEACHERS  £R  1JEW  YORK  CITY, 

WHOSE    INTEREST    IN    METHODS   AND    PRINCIPLES    OP   EDUCATION — MANIFESTED    BY 

THEIR    ATTENDANCE    AT    MY    SATURDAY    LECTURES    DURING    SUCCESSIVE 

YEARS,    BY    THEIR    USE    OF    INSTRUCTION    GIVEN,    AND    BY    THEIR 

WORDS     OF    APPRECIATIVE     COMMENDATION — FURNISHED 

MUCH    ENCOURAGEMENT    FOR    EFFORTS    IN    THEIR 

BEHALF,  AND  IN  BEHALF  OF  THE  BETTER 

EDUCATION     OF    CHILDREN, 

THIS  NEW  VOLUME  ON  TEACHERS'  WORK  IS 


OF 

NIVERSITY 


PREFACE. 


KNOWING  that  which  is  needful  to  be  learned  is  a  great 
attainment.  Knowing  what  should  be  taught,  and  how  to 
teach  it,  is  a  high  art.  To  secure  this  necessary  attain- 
ment is  the  first  duty  of  every  teacher.  To  master  the 
high  art  is  like  unto  the  first  duty  in  its  importance ;  it 
enhances  the  value  of  the  attainment  in  knowledge,  and 
insures  success  in  the  great  work  of  education. 

It  is  strangely  curious  that  the  doing  of  the  same  thing 
may  be  both  easy  and  difficult — easy  when  done  in  the 
right  way,  difficult  when  done  in  the  wrong  way.  Suc- 
cess attends  the  doing  in  the  right  way ;  failure  is  cer- 
tain to  follow  the  doing  in  the  wrong  way.  This  is  em- 
inently true  of  teaching.  Therefore,  to  determine  what 
is  the  proper  way  becomes  a  question  of  great  moment 
to  every  earnest  teacher ;  for  on  the  correctness  of  this 
decision  depends  the  results  of  the  teaching  and  the 
welfare  of  the  pupils. 

A  person  may  compare  the  results  of  one  period  of 
his  work  with  those  of  another  period,  and  thus  note 
his  own  growth  and  progress  in  that  work ;  but  no  per- 
son can  measure  himself  by  himself,  alone,  and  thus  de- 
termine his  actual  ability.  No  teacher  can  measure  his 
own  work  by  itself,  and  thus  determine  its  true  quality. 
To  obtain  accurate  results  of  any  kind  of  work,  and  ar- 


6  PREFACE. 

rive  at  just  conclusions  as  to  its  character,  comparisons 
must  be  made  under  many  conditions,  and  extended  to 
a  multitude  of  cases.  So  the  teacher  must  compare  his 
own  methods  of  teaching  with  those  that  have  been  prov- 
en to  be  good  by  a  long  series  of  practical  experiments — 
made  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions,  and  tested  by 
the  principles  of  education  —  before  he  can  know  with 
certainty  that  he  has  a  standard  of  high  value  to  guide 
him  in  the  work  of  instruction. 

Those  teachers  whose  methods  agree  with  the  princi- 
ples of  education,  and  are  confirmed  by  intelligent  ex- 
perience, stand  upon  a  plane  far  above  that  occupied  by 
the  untrained  and  unskilled  school-keeper,  or  that  of  one 
who  remains  an  undecided  experimenter  in  this  impor- 
tant field ;  and  the  intelligent  work,  approved  by  such 
reliable  authority,  becomes  certain  in  the  character  of  its 
results,  and  positive  in  its  value. 

To  know  how  to  teach,  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results 
of  education,  is  the  most  common  need  in  teachers.  One 
of  the  chief  purposes  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  teachers 
with  available  means  whereby  they  may  ascertain  what 
is  the  nature  of  the  being  to  be  taught,  the  true  character 
of  the  work  to  be  done  in  teaching,  and  how  the  impor- 
tant results  aimed  at  may  be  attained  with  a  good  degree 
of  certainty  under  all  ordinary  circumstances.  Toward 
the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  a  variety  of  methods 
are  described  for  teaching  many  subjects,  thus  endeavor- 
ing to  point  out  those  fitted  for  the  differing  conditions 
of  the  largest  number  of  teachers. 

There  are  many  subjects  concerning  which  teachers 
must  seek  information  almost  daily — information  which 
they  cannot  be  expected  to  have  always  at  their  tongue's 
end,  as  they  do  the  multiplication  table.  To  have  the 


PREFACE.  7 

means  necessary  for  obtaining  this,  easily  accessible  at 
all  times,  is  a  great  boon  to  the  teacher.  To  supply  this 
means,  in  part,  and  to  point  out  other  sources  where  the 
desired  information  may  be  found,  are  among  the  pur- 
poses of  this  work.  Toward  the  accomplishment  of  this, 
facts  upon  several  appropriate  subjects  have  been  gath- 
ered and  arranged  for  the  special  convenience  of  teach- 
ers, thus  saving  much  time  that  otherwise  might  be  spent 
on  encyclopaedias,  and  other  works  of  reference,  even  by 
those  who  have  access  to  such  books.  It  is  not  claimed 
that  these  collections  of  facts,  concerning  different  sub- 
jects, are  complete  in  relation  to  each  topic,  yet  it  is  be- 
lieved that  teachers  will  find  them  specially  useful  in 
their  work. 

Permanent  and  uniform  success  in  teaching  must  come 
through  the  use  of  those  methods  which  are  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  education  ;  therefore  an  intelligent 
understanding  of  those  principles  is  necessary  to  the 
securing  of  desired  results.  From  these  statements  the 
importance  of  attention  to  the  science  of  education — of 
knowing  what  are  the  several  powers  of  the  mind,  and 
the  means  for  their  development  and  proper  cultivation 
— become  readily  apparent.  By  a  careful  study  of  this 
department  of  education,  teachers  may  ascertain  whether 
or  not  the  means  which  they  are  using  will  accomplish 
the  end  in  view  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  the 
proper  training  of  mental  power.  Indeed,  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  teacher  to  know  how  to  do  his  work,  and  also  to 
know  why  he  does  it  in  one  way  rather  than  in  another. 
An  important  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  aid  the  teach- 
er in  learning  the  how  and  the  why,  in  teaching,  and  thus 
help  him  onward  in  the  better  work  of  instruction,  while 
it  awakens,  at  the  same  time,  a  deeper  interest  in  the 


8  PREFACE. 

philosophy  of  education,  and  leads  to  a  more  thorough 
understanding  of  the  important  work  to  be  accomplished. 

The  introduction  of  a  series  of  questions  for  use  in  the 
examination  of  teachers  on  matters  pertaining  to  object- 
teaching,  to  school  management,  to  methods,  and  to  gen- 
eral principles  of  education,  is  believed  to  be  an  impor- 
tant feature  of  this  work ;  and  one  that  will  lead  teachers, 
who  carefully  consider  them,  to  a  more  intelligent  under- 
standing of  the  chief  purposes  of  instruction,  and  enable 
them  to  accomplish  better  results  in  the  training  of  those 
under  their  care. 

It  has  not  been  one  of  the  purposes  here  to  present 
all  the  topics  necessary  to  a  complete  course  of  instruc- 
tion, even  for  a  primary  school;  but  rather,  by  means  of 
methods  illustrated  with  several  objects,  and  by  the  prin- 
ciples of  education,  to  set  forth  the  chief  results  that 
should  be  secured  through  teaching;  and  to  point  out 
means  within  the  reach  of  every  teacher  by  which  these 
desirable  ends  may  be  attained ;  and  also  to  prepare  them 
to  devise  and  use  equally  good  methods  in  teaching  ev- 
ery subject. 

It  is  one  of  the  purposes  in  this  book  to  increase  the 
value  of  the  work  of  instruction,  arid  at  the  same  time  to 
lessen  the  amount  of  the  teacher's  labor,  by  showing  how 
to  train  pupils  to  teach  themselves.  All  real  teaching  is 
self -teaching.  It  is  also  an  aim  to  render  the  work  of 
learning  more  attractive  to  the  pupils,  and  practical  in 
its  results,  by  the  use  of  modes  in  harmony  with  natural 
methods  of  getting  knowledge,  thereby  saving  time,  and 
making  the  work  both  of  the  learner  and  the  teacher 
more  easy  of  accomplishment. 

Twenty  years  ago  my  work  entitled  "Primary  Object 
Lessons"  was  published.  The  facts  that  it  has  now  reach- 


PREFACE.  9 

eel  its  fortieth  edition,  and  also  been  republished  in  Span- 
ish, thereby  enabling  those  engaged  in  the  work  of  edu- 
cation in  both  divisions  of  the  Western  hemisphere  to 
become  familiar  with  its  plans  of  instruction,  are  indica- 
tions that  the  methods  for  elementary  training  which  it 
sets  forth  have  been  favorably  received  and  widely  intro- 
duced. 

The  new  volume  now  presented  to  the  public  embraces 
the  same  general  plan  of  instruction  as  did  the  former 
one ;  and  it  also  extends  over  a  broader  field,  including 
subjects  for  more  advanced  teaching,  and  introduces  a 
greater  variety  of  available  means  for  developing  the 
powers  of  pupils.  This  volume  is  further  intended  to 
supplement  my  first  work  on  Object  Lessons,  thus  pre- 
senting the  subject  in  greater  completeness  by  means  of 
both  books.  It  also  specially  aims  to  lead  teachers  to 
consider  the  principles  of  education  by  which  true  teach- 
ing is  guided  to  valuable  results. 

It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  this  volume  on  the  teacher's 
work  will  be  found  valuable  for  the  variety  of  infor- 
mation which  it  supplies  for  the  use  of  teachers — for 
the  instruction  it  gives  relative  to  methods  of  teaching, 
and  the  development  of  the  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
powers  of  pupils  —  for  its  statements  pertaining  to  the 
science  of  education  and  the  art  of  teaching;  also  that 
it  may  become  an  inspiration,  unfolding  to  teachers  a 
more  thorough  knowledge  of  their  noble  calling,  and  im- 
buing them  with  an  enthusiasm  that  shall  enkindle  an 
ardent  love  of  learning  in  all  thejr  pupils. 

N.  A.  CALKINS. 

New  York,  August,  1881. 


CONTENTS. 


DESIGN  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

PAGE 

Stages  of  Object-teaching 17, 18, 19 

Object  Lessons  and  Object-teaching 21 

How  the  Child  obtains  Elements  of  Knowledge 22 

Importance  of  Attention  to  Methods  of  Teaching 25 

Other  Means  than  Common  Studies  needed  fofr  Training 27 

Means  of  Developing  Language 27 

What  is  Object-teaching  ? 29 

The  Range  of  Object-teaching 31 

PLACE,  DIRECTION,  AND  DISTANCE. 

To  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  PLACE 34 

To  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OP  DIRECTION 38 

To  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  DISTANCE 42 

To  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  BOUNDARIES  AND  MAPS 44 

GEOGRAPHY. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY 51 

Where  to  begin 51 

How  to  proceed 51-56 

To  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SHAPE  AND  SIZE 57 

REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE  ON  GLOBES  AND  MAPS 59 

How  Locations  of  Countries  may  be  learned 60 

MAP  DRAWING  AS  A  MEANS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY 62 

How  to  commence  Map  Drawing 63 

WEIGHT. 

EXERCISES  TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  WEIGHT 68 

The  Necessity  of  Standard  Weight 70 

FACTS  ABOUT  WEIGHT,  FOR  THE  TEACHER 70 

Tables  of  Weights 70-72 

WEIGHT  OF  OBJECTS— COMPARATIVE 72 

Metric  Measure  . .  74 


12  CONTENTS. 

FORM. 

PAOE 

ADDITIONAL  METHODS  FOR  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS 77 

REVIEWING  FORM  LESSONS 81 

ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  FORM 84 

COLOR. 

ADDITIONAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHING  COLOR 93 

RESULTS  OF  MIXTURE  OF  COLORS 97 

STATEMENTS  ABOUT  COLOR,  FOR  THE  TEACHER 103 

HARMONY  IN  COLORS 106 

COLOR-BLINDNESS 110 

Nature  of  Color-blindness Ill 

Tests  for  Color-blindness 112 

Colors  as  Signals 114 

Colors  as  Emblems 115 

Effects  of  Color  on  Complexion 116 

ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  COLOR 117 

LESSONS  IN  HARMONY  OF  COLORS 120 

PROPERTIES  OF  OBJECTS. 

LESSONS  TO  DEVELOP  THE  IDEA  OF  SUBSTANCES 126 

SUBSTANCES — MATERIALS  FOR  ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  OBJECTS 136 

Suggestions  for  Lessons 137 

NOTES  OF  LESSONS 157 

Subjects  for  Lessons 166 

NATURAL  HISTORY. 

LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS — First  Stage 177 

LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS— Second  Stage 181 

LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS — Third  Stage 202 

NOTES  FOR  LESSONS  IN  NATURAL  HISTORY 219 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS 229 

PLANTS. 

Hints  for  Manner  of  giving  Lessons  on  Plants 250 

FACTS  FOR  TEACHERS— ABOUT  PLANTS 252 

Shapes  of  Leaves 252 

Shapes  of  Flowers 255 

Shapes  of  Roots , 256 

FAMILIES  OF  PLANTS 258 

Poisonous  Plants  ....  264 


CONTENTS.  13 

MINERALS. 

PAGE 

Prepare  Pupils  to  observe  Minerals 274 

CHEMISTRY;  OR,  ELEMENTS  OF  SUBSTANCES 278 

Mineral-letters 279 

OCCUPATIONS  AND   TRADES. 

Lessons  on  Occupations  and  Trades 285-288 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

PHYSICAL  EXERCISES 301 

Movements  illustrated 301-308 

TEACHING  THE  MOVEMENTS .' 309 

Sets  of  Exercises 310 

EXERCISE-DRILL 312 

MORAL  TRAINING,  AND  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 
Facts  to  be  remembered  by  the  Teacher 320 

SCIENCE  OF  COMMON  THINGS. 

Atmosphere 331 

Mechanical  Powers 337 

SCIENCE  OF  EDUCATION. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  TERMS 343 

PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION 347 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS 349 

How  NATURE  TEACHES  A  CHILD 355 

ELEMENTS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY 359 

MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS. 

The  Mind 364 

The  Senses 364 

Organs  of  Sense 367-373 

Classification  of  Knowledge  gained  by  the  Senses 374 

DEVELOPING  THE  POWERS  OF  MIND 375 

Cultivating  Perceptiveness 375 

POWERS  OF  MENTAL  ACQUISITION 379 

Observation . .  .380 


14:  CONTENTS. 

POWERS  OF  MENTAL  REPRODUCTION. 

PAQB 
LANGUAGE 384 

Culture  in  the  Use  of  Language 386 

MEMORY 392 

Culture  of  Memory : 396 

Three  Periods  of  Memory 397-400 

ATTENTION 402 

Culture  of  Attention 403 

IMAGINATION 408 

Culture  of  Imagination 411 

POWERS  OF  HUMAN  REASON. 

COMPARISON 416 

Culture  of  Comparison 417 

Analogy 420 

Judgment 421 

REASON 423 

Cultivation  of  Reason 426 

POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION. 

The  Feelings,  Sentiments,  and  Emotions 430 

Training  the  Moral  Powers 431 

Means  of  Moral  Culture 441 

POWER  OF  WILLING. 

THE  WILL 443 

Influence  of  Will  on  Character 445 

Freedom  of  Will 446 

Training  the  Will t 446 

Will  a  Power  in  School  Government 449 

QUESTION  FOR  EXAMINATION  OF  TEACHERS , 455 

INDEX  .  .  465 


OF  THB 

UIT17BRSITT 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


DESIGN  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

THE  term  object-teaching  has  been  so  frequently  applied 
to  modes  of  giving  lessons  widely  differing  in  matter, 
manner,  and  aim,  that  its  real  import  is  often  misappre- 
hended. It  seems  to  be  necessary,  therefore,  to  explain 
what  constitutes  object-teaching,  that  the  reader  may  be 
prepared  to  understand  the  design  of  the  succeeding 
lessons. 

Object-teaching  has  for  its  purpose  a  thorough  develop- 
ment of  all  the  child's  faculties,  and  their  proper  employ- 
ment in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  It  is  not  a  plan 
of  fixed,  unchangeable  methods,  but  a  system  of  training 
based  upon  and  controlled  by  the  fact  that  the  beginning 
of  real  knowledge  must  come  through  the  appropriate 
exercise  of  the  senses.  Its  purpose  is  not  the  attainment 
of  facts,  nor  the  cultivation  of  language  as  an  end,  but  the 
development,  to  vigorous  and  healthy  action,  of  the  child's 
powers  of  getting  and  using  knowledge  by  the  means 
both  of  obtaining  and  of  using  it.  It  furnishes  exercises 
to  produce  the  ability  to  learn,  and  methods  to  aid  in 
learning.  It  does  not  signify  the  things  about  which 
something  is  taught,  nor  that  which  is  taught  about  them, 
so  much  as  it  means  the  principles  by  which  the  teaching 
is  performed,  and  the  purpose  and  manner  of  the  teaching. 


16  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

It  deals  with  things,  and  it  considers  subjects  also.  It  at- 
tends to  realities  and  their  relations,  rather  than  to  ideals 
and  their  representations.  It  furnishes  a  means  of  attain- 
ing clear  ideas  of  distant  objects  and  events  through  those 
that  are  near  and  known. 

Object-teaching  prepares  the  learner's  mind,  by  devel- 
opment begun  through  sense-perceptions,  and  continued 
by  observation  and  reflection,  to  clearly  understand  the 
important  facts  concerning  things  arid  acts,  and  their  re- 
lations to  spoken  and  written  language.  It  does  not  pro- 
pose that  the  child  shall  gain  all  its  knowledge  from  the 
process  by  which  the  human  race  was  led  through  the 
wilderness  of  personal  experiences  to  the  attainment  of 
the  present  sciences,  but  it  does  propose  to  lead  the  in- 
experienced learner  into  the  midst  of  objects  and  influ- 
ences that  will  awaken  the  several  senses  to  activity,  and 
thus  increase  his  progress  in  knowledge.  It  proposes  to 
guide  the  young  learner  till  his  enlarged  experiences  pre- 
pare him  to  extend  his  acquisitions  through  others'  expe- 
riences as  furnished  by  books,  and  also  to  confirm  the 
facts  thus  gained  by  his  own  observations. 

Once  more,  object-teaching  implies, 

First.  The  use  of  systematic  exercises  with  objects,  for 
the  development  of  the  power  of  gaining  knowledge ; 

Second.  A  training  in  habits  of  getting  knowledge  from 
objects,  models,  pictures,  and  diagrams  by  careful  obser- 
vation—  both  of  these  ends  being  reached  through  the 
guided  personal  experiences  of  the  learner ; 

Third.  The  teaching  of  pupils  to  avail  themselves  of 
facts  discovered  by  others  and  recorded  in  books,  and 
training  them  to  verify  those  facts,  so  far  as  practicable, 
by  personal  examination. 

For  further  explanation  of  the  design  of  object-teach- 
ing I  will  describe  the  stages  into  which  the  work  may 
be  divided,  and  the  purposes  of  each. 


STAGES  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  17 

First  Stage  of  Object-teaching. — The  first  stage  of 
object-teaching  has  for  its  chief  aim  the  development  of 
the  child's  perceptive  powers  through  proper  exercise  of 
the  several  senses.  At  this  period  it  does  not  propose 
the  teaching  of  objects  nor  of  subjects,  but  rather  a  sys- 
tematic plan  of  using  objects  as  a  means  for  developing 
the  senses  to  that  facility  of  activity  which  will  enable 
the  child  to  form  habits  of  gaining  knowledge  by  careful 
observation. 

This  stage  of  object-teaching  should  be  commenced  by 
the  mother  before  the  child  is  old  enough  to  enter  school; 
and  during  the  first  year  or  two  the  chief  efforts  should 
be  directed  to  the  supplying  of  suitable  materials  to  in- 
duce the  exercise  of  each  of  the  senses,  and,  when  neces- 
sary, stimulating  the  child  to  use  these  materials  in  such 
a  way  as  to  become  familiar  with  their  easily  perceived 
properties  and  qualities — as  colors,  shapes,  hardness,  soft- 
ness, sweetness,  sourness,  heaviness,  lightness,  etc. — devot- 
ing less  attention  to  teaching  the  names  of  these  proper- 
ties than  to  training  the  pupils  to  receive  them  readily. 

The  want  of  knowledge  which  the  child  expresses  by 
those  familiar  and  oft-repeated  questions,  "  What  is  it  ?" 
"  What  is  it  for  3"  "  Why  does  it  do  so  ?"  should  be  care- 
fully heeded,  and  the  child  led  to  find  answers  to  his  own 
questions,  as  far  as  possible,  through  his  personal  experi- 
ences. The  exercise  of  his  powers  which  the  child  gains 
by  that  which  he  sees  and  does  with  the  objects  teaches 
him  the  most  useful  lessons  during  this  stage — lessons 
which  are  more  valuable  than  the  words  which  he  learns 
to  say  about  them.  It  is  through  such  lessons  that  the 
young  learner  develops  his  perceptive  powers  by  the  con- 
tact of  his  senses  with  the  objects  about  him,  and  gains  a 
real  knowledge  of  them. 

Kindergarten  training  belongs  to  this  stage  of  object- 
teaching.  And  where  children  enter  school  without  hav- 


18  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ing  received  any  systematic  training  for  the  development 
of  their  senses,  either  through  home  training  or  by  kin- 
dergarten instruction,  this  introductory  stage  of  object- 
teaching  should  be  employed  during  the  first  term  of 
school  attendance  in  the  lowest  primary  class,  as  a  means 
for  preparing  the  young  pupils  for  subsequent  instruc- 
tion. 

The  efforts  toward  teaching  language  during  this  stage 
should  be  limited  chiefly  to  the  names  of  objects  and 
acts,  and  to  the  obvious  properties  which  the  pupils  dis- 
tinguish. 

Second  Stage  of  Object-teaching. — This  stage  prop- 
erly belongs  to  the  first  years  of  the  child's  school-life, 
and  its  chief  aim  is  to  prepare  the  young  pupils  for  re- 
ceiving instruction  in  the  elementary  steps  of  those  sub- 
jects which  are  included  in  the  course  for  the  first  two 
years  at  school.  Objects  may  now  be  employed  both  as  a 
means  of  development  and  as  subjects  of  instruction  ;  but 
the  development  and  the  instruction  must  be  based  upon 
the  pupil 's  personal  experiences. 

The  first  duty  of  the  teacher,  in  the  second  stage  of 
object-teaching,  is  to  supply  materials  suitable  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  child's  powers,  and  then  to  stimulate  and 
guide  in  the  proper  exercise  of  those  powers.  The  ma- 
terials first  provided  for  instruction  at  this  time  should 
consist  of  objects  chiefly.  Pictures  may  be  used  profita- 
bly during  later  exercises.  The  teacher  must  co-operate 
with  and  direct  the  pupil's  own  activity  in  the  use  of 
the  materials  for  the  child's  development,  but  should  do 
nothing  to  supersede  the  personal  activity  of  the  pupil. 
The  child's  education  comes  from  that  which  he  does 
himself.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  secure  disci- 
pline of  the  pupil's  mind  through  the  formation  of 
habits  of  ready  and  accurate  observation. 


STAGES  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  19 

When  an  object  is  the  subject  of  a  lesson,  the  pupils 
should  be  led  to  observe  those  obvious  qualities  and  prop- 
erties in  which  it  resembles  similar  objects ;  also  those  by 
which  it  is  chiefly  distinguished  from  other  objects,  or 
which  add  most  to  its  usefulness.  The  teacher  should 
cause  the  instruction  about  the  object  to  be  intimately 
associated  with  the  facts  already  learned*  by  the  pupils 
through  their  own  observations. 

When  a  subject  or  topic  is  the  matter  of  the  lesson,  the 
pupils  should  be  prepared  for  the  instruction  by  first  di- 
recting their  attention  to  kindred  facts  already  known, 
and  their  knowledge  of  these  used  to  teach  the  unknown 
of  the  new  subject. 

During  this  stage  attention  should  be  given  to  teach- 
ing the  children  the  use  of  simple  language  that  will  en- 
able them  to  express  the  knowledge  which  they  acquire 
concerning  the  objects  or  the  subject-matters  that  consti- 
tute the  lessons. 

Third  Stage  of  Object -teaching.  —  The  acquisition 
of  knowledge  by  means  of  objects,  and  the  use  of  facts 
previously  learned  to  aid  in  gaining  knowledge  of  new 
subjects,  become  prominent  aims  of  this  system  of  in- 
struction during  the  third  stage  of  object-teaching.  The 
number  and  kinds  of  objects,  and  the  range  of  appropri- 
ate subjects,  are  now  greatly  increased.  The  principles 
which  give  shape  to  the  plans  of  teaching  during  the  first 
two  stages  now  may  be  extended  to  a  greater  variety  of 
subjects;  and  objects,  pictures,  diagrams,  etc.,  be  used  to 
aid  the  pupils  in  obtaining  clear  and  correct  ideas  per- 
taining to  these  different  subjects. 

In  lessons  upon  objects,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to 
distinguish  those  qualities  and  properties  which  give  spe- 
cial value  to  the  object,  and  which  chiefly  render  it  suita- 
ble to  those  uses  for  which  it  is  commonly  employed. 


20  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

If  the  lessons  be  on  animals,  the  children  may  be  led  to 
observe  the  prominent  peculiarities  of  some  familiar  ani- 
mal— as  a  cat ;  such  as  the  shape  of  its  head,  teeth,  claws, 
feet,  ears,  eyes,  nose ;  then  these  and  its  habits  may  be 
compared  with  others  of  the  same  family — as  the  lion, 
tiger,  leopard,  lynx,  and  panther  in  a  menagerie,  or  by 
means  of  pictures,  and  the  pupils  thus  taught  their  obvi- 
ous family  likenesses  and  characteristics. 

If  the  subject  be  geography,  the  teacher  may  com- 
mence with  the  school-room — its  shape,  boundary,  its  lo- 
cation, and  direction  from  familiar  places  in  the  vicinity ; 
then  direct  attention  to  streams,  ponds,  islands,  hills,  val- 
leys, and  occupations  that  are  known  to  the  children,  and 
from  their  knowledge  of  these  teach  them  to  understand 
lessons  about  similar  objects  and  occupations  in  countries 
which  they  have  not  seen. 

If  the  subject  be  arithmetic,  counting,  adding,  and  oth- 
er operations  with  objects  may  be  employed  to  give  cor- 
rect ideas  before  processes,  definitions,  or  rules  are  taught. 
Thus  the  plan  of  instruction  in  this  stage  also  places  the 
knowledge  of  things  before  words  in  the  order  of  teach- 
ing, and  in  the  order  of  importance.  It  illustrates  by 
objects,  pictures,  drawings,  and  examples,  before  present- 
ing descriptions,  definitions,  or  rules.  It  trains  children 
in  the  manner  best  suited  to  the  gaining  of  ideas  from 
objects  or  from  subjects,  and  gives  them  the  proper  lan- 
guage for  expressing  those  ideas.  It  leads  also  to  a  clas- 
sification and  association  of  kindred  ideas  and  facts.  And 
during  succeeding  lessons  special  care  is  taken  to  associ- 
ate the  new  facts  with  the  knowledge  previously  learned 
concerning  the  same  subject ;  also  to  extend  and  attach 
all  knowledge,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  the  affairs  of 
daily  life;  and  thus  cause  the  school -lessons  to  become 
instruction  on  real  things. 


STAGES  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  21 

Object  Lessons  and  Object-teaching. — Those  proc- 
esses of  instruction  which  embrace  the  aims  already  de- 
scribed, and  conform  to  the  principles  herein  presented, 
and  secure  the  results  thus  contemplated,  may  be  called 
object -teaching.  This  system  of  using  objects,  and  of 
treating  subjects  by  its  methods  of  teaching,  develops  the 
mental  powers  through  a  proper  exercise  of  the  appropri- 
ate senses,  and  leads  to  correct  habits  of  gaining  knowl- 
edge ;  therefore,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  chiefly  the  man- 
ner and  purpose  of  using  objects,  as  a  means  of  develop- 
ment and  instruction,  which  determines  whether  the  plan 
of  proceeding  may  be  called  object-teaching,  or  not. 

An  object  lesson  has  for  its  matter  an  object,  or  some 
quality  or  property  of  an  object,  which  is  made  the  means 
of  gaining  ideas  and  developing  certain  perceptive  pow- 
ers. An  object  lesson  is  an  individual  or  single  lesson 
upon  an  object,  given  in  a  proper  manner,  for  a  definite 
purpose. 

Object -teaching  may  have  as  the  subject -matter  of  a 
lesson  an  object,  or  a  topic,  or  subject  of  any  branch  of 
knowledge.  It  is  a  systematic  plan  for  successive  lessons, 
so  conducted  that  knowledge  is  derived  from  and  associ- 
ated with  objects  and  the  learner's  personal  experiences 
to  the  greatest  extent  practicable.  It  may  embrace  a 
course  of  instruction  including  many  topics,  with  each 
lesson  founded  upon  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge, 
while  it  prepares  him  for  succeeding  lessons.  It  employs 
objects  and  facts  previously  known  as  the  means  of  illus- 
trating the  new  lesson.  It  is  a  process  for  combined  de- 
velopment and  instruction  in  accordance  with  correct 
principles  of  education. 

True  object -teaching  implies  knowledge  obtained  by 
and  through  the  pupiV  s  personal  experiences  under  com- 
petent guidance.  The  teacher  guides  the  learner  to  the 
knowledge,  but  requires  the  pupil  to  gain  it  by  his  own 


22  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

exertions.  The  teacher  arranges  the  materials  for  the 
lesson,  and  brings  the  mind  of  the  pupil  into  such  contact 
with  the  materials  that  the  activity  of  the  learner's  mind 
secures  the  desired  knowledge. 

How  the  Child  Obtains  Elements  of  Knowledge. 
— For  the  purpose  of  securing  a  clearer  understanding 
of  the  basis  of  object-teaching,  and  its  adaptation  to  the 
attainment  of  the  important  ends  in  education  already 
mentioned,  the  reader's  attention  is  here  invited  to  the 
following  consideration  of  the  manner  by  which  children 
gain  ideas  and  acquire  their  earliest  knowledge. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  mind  is  endowed  with 
power  of  acquiring  ideas ;  that  this  power  is  early  mani- 
fested through  the  several  organs  of  sense ;  and  that  by 
this  means  the  elements  of  our  knowledge  are  obtained. 
Even  the  consciousness  which  we  have  of  our  own  minds, 
and  of  the  mind's  power,  becomes  more  complete  and 
vivid  as  the  knowledge  of  things  around  us  becomes 
more  definite  and  thorough.  The  amount  of  information 
which  the  mind  may  acquire,  from  all  sources,  depends 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  upon  the  clearness  of  the  ideas 
derived  through  the  senses.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that 
material  objects  and  sensible  events  should  comprise  a 
large  part  of  the  exercises  for  intellectual  training  during 
childhood. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  "the  knowledge  which  a 
child  acquires  by  the  exercise  of  its  own  senses  penetrates 
the  intellect  more  deeply  and  pervades  it  more  complete- 
ly than  any  other,  for  it  is  the  impression  which  nature 
herself  makes  upon  the  mind  by  direct  contact ;  while  all 
other  media  of  instruction  are  but  representatives  of  nat- 
ure, more  or  less  imperfect."* 

*  Manual  of  Human  Culture,  by  Garvey. 


STAGES  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  23 

The  natural  development  of  mind  begins  with  its  ac- 
tivity through  the  organs  of  sense,  and  corresponds  in  its 
progress  to  the  facility  which  it  attains  in  acquiring  ideas 
through  the  influence  of  external  objects.  If  these  chief 
gate-ways  of  knowledge  be  but  partially  opened,  the  ele- 
ments of  ideas  must  pass  through  them  with  difficulty, 
and  often  become  distorted  by  the  passage.  But  with 
these  doors  and  windows  to  the  mind  wide  open,  the  ob- 
stacles to  learning  are  easily  overcome,  and  the  pupil's 
progress  made  rapid,  as  clearness  of  perception  leads  to 
completeness  of  knowledge. 

The  earliest  exercises  of  the  child's  senses  excite  in  its 
mind  a  desire  to  know  something  about  what  it  sees, 
hears,  feels,  tastes,  smells,  etc.  This  desire  for  informa- 
tion, or  curiosity,  increases  with  the  delight  experienced 
by  new  accessions  of  knowledge,  and  induces  a  contin- 
ual mental  activity  and  restlessness  during  the  child's 
waking  hours. 

It  is  also  a  provision  of  nature  that,  as  soon  as  the  in- 
fant mind  has  taken  in  such  knowledge  of  an  object  as 
its  limited  capacity  can  readily  receive  without  aid,  the 
child  no  longer  manifests  any  interest  in  or  curiosity  to- 
ward the  object;  and  unless  a  skilful  instructor  assists 
him  in  gaining  still  further  knowledge,  and  thus  continu- 
ing the  interest,  the  child  soon  turns  to  seek  information 
from  something  new.  But,  even  when  thus  aided,  the 
amount  of  information  which  the  undeveloped  mind  has 
power  to  grasp,  or  capacity  to  receive  at  one  time  from 
the  same  object,  is  very  limited,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
fatigue  which  might  be  experienced  by  efforts  to  attend 
to  the  same  subject  for  a  long  time ;  hence  the  child 
must  of  necessity  change  his  attention  frequently  from 
one  subject  or  class  of  objects  to  another. 

Nevertheless,  after  an  interval  during  which  the  mind 
has  been  occupied  with  other  things,  the  same  object 


24:  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

will  afford  fresh  interest  by  a  repetition  of  the  informa- 
tion given  before,  thus  recalling  the  pleasure  experienced 
during  its  first  reception.  These  facts  account  for  that 
fondness  for  variety,  or  love  of  novelty,  or  curiosity,  as 
this  trait  is  variously  called,  which  is  so  prominent  in 
children,  and  which  may  be  made  a  valuable  means  of 
aiding  the  teacher  in  both  the  instruction  and  the  man- 
agement of  the  class. 

The  same  principles  apply  to  the  mind  in  youth  and 
in  maturity,  the  results  differing  in  quantity  or  degree. 
As  the  mind  attains  degrees  of  development  which  enable 
it  to  gain  more  knowledge  from  an  object,  and  acquires 
habits  of  attention  which  give  it  the  power  of  observing 
the  same  subject  for  a  longer  time,  there  is  less  necessity 
for  frequent  changes. 

Some  objects  naturally  secure  the  attention  and  inter- 
est of  children  longer  than  others,  because  of  the  variety 
of  the  information  which  may  be  received  from  them,  and 
the  greater  number  of  senses  and  faculties  which  they  ex- 
cite to  action.  Objects  that  move,  and  those  which  the 
children  can  themselves  cause  to  move,  and  to  assume  va- 
rious positions  and  shapes,  and  those  exercises  in  which 
the  children  have  something  to  do,  belong  especially  to 
this  class.  ISTow  it  is  of  great  importance  for  parents  and 
teachers  to  remember  these  facts  during  the  early  train- 
ing of  children. 

In  conformity  with  these  provisions  of  nature,  and  their 
relation  to  the  capacity  of  the  infant  mind,  the  first  les- 
sons of  instruction  should  he  short  and  frequently  alter- 
nate. But  as  the  mind  becomes  stronger  from  repeated 
exercises,  the  habits  of  continuous  attention  become  fixed, 
and  its  capacity  enlarged  by  development,  the  lessons  may 
be  increased  in  length,  and  the  same  subjects  continued 
longer  under  investigation. 

Habits   are  formed  by  repetitions  of  the   same   acts. 


STAGES  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  25 

The  pupil's  habits  of  learning  are  chiefly  formed  by  the 
modes  of  instruction  employed  by  the  teacher.  To  attain 
correct  habits,  the  foundation  must  be  laid  in  childhood. 
If  a  child  be  early  trained  in  habits  of  accurate  obser- 
vation of  the  various  properties  of  the  common  objects 
around  him,  he  will  have  a  permanent  guarantee  for  the 
successful  acquisition  of  knowledge  during  after-years. 

We  cannot  add  a  new  power  or  faculty  to  the  mind 
by  any  method  of  teaching,  nor  change  the  natural  mode 
of  its  development;  but  we  can  surround  it  with  influ- 
ences adapted  to  awaken  its  slumbering  energies,  and  thus 
increase  its  power  of  action. 

Importance  of  Attention  to  Methods  of  Teaching. 
— It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  proper  exercise  develops 
and  strengthens  our  limbs.  The  mind  is  subject  to  the 
same  laws  of  development,  and  requires  suitable  exercise 
to  give  it  the  power  of  vigorous  action.  The  manner  of 
learning,  as  well  as  the  facts  acquired,  develops  the  mind, 
and  disciplines  its  powers  in  habits  that  influence  all  its 
subsequent  attainments  in  knowledge.  It  becomes,  there- 
fore, a  matter  of  great  moment  what  methods  of  instruc- 
tion shall  be  employed  in  the  processes  of  early  educa- 
tion, since  upon  these  must  depend,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
habits  of  learning  that  will  influence  all  the  future  career 
of  the  pupil.  Systematic  object -teaching  gives  special 
attention  to  the  manner  of  learning  with  a  view  to  the 
formation  of  the  best  habits. 

The  principles  of  object-teaching  require  that  children 
shall  first  be  trained  to  use  their  several  senses  with  facili- 
ty, and  to  observe  with  accuracy;  that  they  shall  be  taught 
to  compare  objects,  and  classify  like  things  and  facts,  and 
to  describe  intelligently  what  they  observe  around  them. 
These  principles  also  require  that  children  shall  be  taught 
the  rudiments  of  each  subject 


26  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  early  stages  of  education,  in  accordance  with  the  nat- 
ural mode  of  gaining  knowledge,  before  books  relating 
to  the  subjects  are  placed  in  their  hands ;  also  that  these 
elementary  steps  of  instruction  shall  prepare  the  way  for, 
and  lead  to  an  intelligent  use  of  text-books.  During  the 
third  stage  of  object-teaching  the  pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged to  seek  knowledge  from  books  as  well  as  from, 
objects,  and  thus  form  correct  habits  of  learning  from 
this  important  source  of  knowledge. 

Object-teaching  takes  heed  of  the  prominent  character- 
istics of  childhood — the  desire  to  use  the  respective  senses 
in  seeing,  hearing,  feeling,  tasting,  etc.,  and  their  limbs 
in  doing.  It  leads  children  to  use  their  powers  for  per- 
ceiving, trains  them  to  know  from  observing,  and  to  ac- 
cumulate knowledge  ~by  classifying  like  objects,  facts,  and 
experiences,  and  associating  them  with  the  things  to  which 
they  chiefly  relate. 

Children  generally  make  great  progress  in  the  use  of 
their  senses,  in  the  development  of  their  faculties,  in  ac- 
quiring facts  from  surrounding  objects,  and  in  strength- 
ening their  physical  powers,  before  they  enter  school. 
Object -teaching  requires  that  due  cognizance  shall  be 
taken  of  these  facts,  by  ascertaining  the  extent  of  this 
progress,  and  then  employing  the  appropriate  means  for 
continuing  the  pupil's  advancement  in  knowledge  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  same  laws  of  nature  which  controlled 
the  process  of  learning  before  the  child  came  under  the 
influence  of  school.  For  the  accomplishment  of  these 
aims,  suitable  exercises  are  provided  whereby  the  unde- 
veloped powers  of  the  pupils — their  defects  of  hearing, 
seeing,  speech,  etc. — are  as  far  removed  as  the  nature  of 
the  case  will  allow.  Thus  it  is  the  design  of  object-teach- 
ing, during  all  the  stages  of  instruction,  to  consider  first 
the  real  state  of  the  mind's  development,  as  a  means  of 
determining  what  steps  should  be  taken  in  the  methods 


DEVELOPING  LANGUAGE.  27 

of  teaching,  and  then  to  proceed  in  accordance  with  the 
needs  of  the  case  and  the  laws  of  mental  growth. 

Other  Means  than  Common  Studies  needed  for 
Training. — The  common  studies — reading,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  geography,  and  writing — do  not  supply 
all  the  needed  opportunities  for  fixing  the  attention  and 
continuing  the  interest  of  pupils ;  nor  do  these  furnish 
the  varied  exercises  for  training  the  several  senses  of 
children  in  a  manner  that  will  lead  to  a  complete  devel- 
opment of  the  different  faculties  of  the  mind.  Indeed, 
these  subjects,  as  too  commonly  taught,  do  not  lie  within 
the  range  of  the  usual  experiences  of  children ;  therefore 
they  do  not  furnish  the  best  materials  for  the  first  steps 
of  instruction.  For  these  reasons  lessons  on  the  shape, 
color,  and  qualities  of  objects,  the  prominent  characteris- 
tics of  animals  and  plants,  and  various  other  objects,  are 
needed  both  to  precede  and  supplement  the  means  for- 
merly used  in  elementary  instruction.  It  is  only  when 
the  conditions  for  instruction  are  favorable  that  pupils 
may  be  easily  led  to  form  those  good  habits  of  learning 
which  will  secure  a  proper  mental  development,  and  the 
power  resulting  from  right  discipline  of  mind.  A  cor- 
rect habit  of  learning  is  chief  among  the  important  ends 
to  be  secured  by  object-teaching. 

Means  of  Developing  Language. — Object-teaching 
supplies  the  very  best  means  for  developing  the  language 
of  children.  The  child  first  learns  to  use  the  names  of 
things,  then  the  names  of  actions,  and  afterward  names 
of  kinds  and  qualities  of  things,  and  words  that  tell 
when,  where,  and  how  actions  take  place. 

His  lessons  on  objects,  of  whatever  kind,  continually 
add  to  his  vocabulary  of  words  representing  names ;  of 
words  telling  the  qualities,  properties,  shapes,  colors,  and 


28  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

uses  of  objects ;  of  words  representing  various  actions,  and 
the  manner  and  time  of  those  actions.  Besides,  by  true 
object-teaching  he  is  led  to  see,  to  think  about  what  he 
sees,  and  then  to  talk  about  it,  or  describe  it  to  others. 
He  is  taught  which  are  the  best  words  to  use,  and  how  to 
employ  them,  both  in  spoken  and  written  language.  He 
is  thus  supplied  with  all  the  materials  necessary  for  a  full 
development  and  ready  use  of  our  language. 

The  matter  of  developing  the  language  of  the  pupils, 
and  training  them  to  use  it  correctly  and  fluently,  should 
constitute  one  of  the  aims  of  object-teaching  throughout 
all  the  subjects  of  instruction,  even  though  not  mentioned 
in  connection  with  each  group  of  lessons. 

To  this  end  the  mistakes  made  by  the  pupils  should  be 
noticed,  and  correct  expressions  taught  them.  Language 
is  lest  learned  ~by  its  proper  use,  not  ~by  rules. 

Wherever  the  characteristics  of  childhood  are  care- 
fully studied  and  clearly  understood,  the  utility  and  im- 
portance of  object-teaching,  in  the  processes  of  elemen- 
tary education,  can  no  more  be  questioned  than  can 
the  necessity  and  usefulness  of  the  gardener's  labor  in 
preparing  the  soil  for  his  plants,  or  that  of  the  farmer 
in  getting  his  fields  ready  for  the  various  seeds  which 
he  hopes  will  spring  up  and  produce  the  ripened  grains 
and  delicious  fruits  both  as  the  result  and  the  reward  of 
his  labors. 

"Whoever  studiously  observes  the  means  by  which  the 
minds  of  children  are  naturally  developed,  and  the  man- 
ner of  acquiring  that  which  is  most  lasting  in  its  sub- 
stance, most  enduring  in  its  influence,  and  most  practical 
in  its  usefulness,  of  all  their  educational  attainments,  can- 
not fail  to  acknowledge  the  important  agency  of  object- 
teaching,  when  directed  by  a  skilful  teacher,  in  laying  the 
best  possible  foundation  and  supplying  the  best  condi- 
tions of  success  in  elementarv  education. 


WHAT  IS  OBJECT-TEACHING?  29 

Object-teaching. — What  object-teaching  is  has  been 
described  so  exceedingly  well  by  Professor  S.  S.  GKEENE, 
of  Brown  University,  that  I  take  the  liberty  of  repeating 
his  language  in  this  connection.* 

"  Object-teaching  is  that  which  takes  into  account  the  whole 
realm  of  nature  and  art,  so  far  as  the  child  has  examined  it,  and 
assumes  as  known  only  what  the  child  knows — not  what  the 
teacher  knows — and  works  from  the  well  known  to  the  obscurely 
known,  and  so  onward  and  upward  till  the  learner  can  enter  the 
fields  of  science  or  of  abstract  thought.  It  is  that  which  devel- 
ops the  abstract  from  the  concrete,  which  develops  the  idea,  then 
gives  the  term.  It  is  that  which  appeals  to  the -intelligence  of 
the  child  through  the  senses  until  clear  and  vivid  conceptions  are 
formed,  and  then  uses  these  conceptions  as  something  real  and 
vital.  It  is  that  which  follows  Nature's  order — the  thing,  the 
conception,  the  word ;  so  that  when  this  order  is  reversed — the 
word,  the  conception,  the  thing — the  chain  of  connection  shall 
not  be  broken ;  the  word  shall  instantly  occasion  the  conception, 
and  the  conception  shall  be  accompanied  with  the  firm  convic- 
tion of  a  corresponding  reality.  It  is  that  which  insists  upon 
something  besides  mere  empty,  verbal  expressions  in  every  school 
exercise ;  in  other  words,  it  insists  upon  expression  and  thought' 
in  place  of  expression  and  no  thought.  It  is  that  which  culti- 
vates expression  as  an  answer  to  an  inward  pressing  want,  rather 
than  by  a  fanciful  collection  of  pretty  phrases  culled  from  differ- 
ent authors.  It  is  that  which  makes  the  school  a  place  where 
the  child  comes  in  contact  with  realities,  just  such  as  appeal  to 
his  common  sense  when  he  roams  at  pleasure  in  the  fields.  It  is 
that  which  relieves  the  child's  school  task  by  making  it  intelligi- 
ble and  possible.  It  bids  him  examine  for  himself,  discriminate 
for  himself,  and  express  for  himself ;  while  the  teacher  stands  by 
to  give  hints  and  suggestions,  not  to  relieve  the  labor.  In  short, 
it  is  that  which  addresses  itself  directly  to  the  eye,  external  or 


*  From  "A  Report  on  Object-teaching'11  made  before  the  National  Teachers' 
Association,  1865. 


30  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

internal ;  which  summons  to  its  aid  things  present  or  things  ab- 
sent, things  past  or  things  to  come,  and  bids  them  yield  the  les- 
sons which  they  infold ;  which  deals  with  actual  existence,  and 
not  with  empty  dreams." 

Its  Effects. — "  It  should  be  introduced  in  some  way  every- 
where. It  will  aid  any  teacher  in  correcting  dogmatic  tenden- 
cies, by  enlivening  his  lessons,  and  giving  zest  to  his  instructions. 
He  will  draw  from  the  heavens  above,  and  from  the  earth  be- 
neath, or  from  the  waters  under  the  earth,  from  the  world  with- 
out, and  from  the  world  within.  He  will  not  measure  the  in- 
struction by  pages,  nor  the  progress  by  fluency  of  utterance. 
He  will  dwell  in  living  thought,  surrounded  by  living  thinkers. 
Thoughtful  himself,  he  will  be  thought-stirring  in  all  his  teach- 
ing. In  fact,  his  very  presence,  with  his  thought-inspiring  meth- 
ods, gives  tone  to  his  whole  school.  *  *  *  Object-teaching  has  a 
direct  influence  upon  the  teacher  himself.  It  cannot  be  pursued, 
even  tolerably  well,  without  making  it  manifest  to  any  one  that 
the  great  object  of  teaching  is  to  deal  with  ideas  rather  than  to 
crowd  the  memory  with  words.  He  who  can  give  an  object  les- 
son well  is  capable  of  giving  any  lesson  well,  because  he  has 
learned  that  it  is  the  reality,  and  not  the  expression  of  it,  that  is 
the  chief  object  to  be  gained.  He  who  makes  it  his  first,  second, 
and  last  aim  to  teach  realities  will  soon  discover  two  essential 
conditions :  he  must  know  the  present  capacity  and  attainments 
of  the  child,  and  then  what  realities  are  suited  to  them. 

"  If  it  were  not  for  one  fact,  our  primary  schools  would  have 
cabinets  of  natural  objects  as  varied  as  those  that  fill  the  halls  of 
our  highest  institutions,  and  that  is  the  simple  fact  that  children 
can  remember  words,  as  words,  without  associating  them  with  any 
idea  whatever.  They  can  use  words  which  mean  much,  while  to 
them  they  mean  nothing.  They  can  repeat  them  fluently,  and  use 
them  as  though  they  really  meant  something  to  themselves,  by 
imitation  of  the  teacher's  voice.  They  can  see  that  the  teacher 
accepts  them  as  though  all  was  right.  Here  is  a  double  evil-: 
the  teacher  is  a  stranger  to  the  child's  real  condition,  and  the 
child  supposes  he  is  actually  learning  something. 

"One  reason  why  many  oppose  object -teaching  is  the  fact 


THE  KANGE  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING.  31 

that  they  cannot  readily  free  themselves  from  the  impression  that 
their  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught  is  somehow  neces- 
sarily connected  with  the  language  of  the  text-book.  They  have 
never  tried  to  disengage  it  from  the  particular  forms  into  which 
some  author  has  moulded  it.  They  use  technical  terms,  and  often 
the  worst  of  technical  terms,  because  they  know  no  other.  There 
is  an  almost  servile  dependence  upon  the  use  of  certain  terms; 
and  if  the  whole  truth  were  known,  it  might  appear  that  the  idea 
is  not  sufficiently  mastered  to  disengage  it  from  the  term.  How 
can  such  a  teacher  do  otherwise  than  cling  to  his  authority  ? 

"  The  very  essence  of  teaching  lies  in  a  living  apprehension  of 
the  subject  itself ;  such  an  apprehension  as  will  enable  the  teacher 
to  adapt  his  instruction  to  the  child's  real  wants ;  which  is  just 
what  a  text-book  cannot  do.  Teach  realities  is  the  true  teach- 
er's motto.  To  this  he  commits  himself ;  nay,  crosses  the  river 
and  burns  the  bridge.  He  is  ashamed  of  his  teaching  if  it  is 
anything  short  of  this.  Hence  his  ingenuity,  his  aptness,  his  ver- 
satility, his  varied  resorts  in  an  emergency.  He  can  teach  with  a 
text-book  or  without  it.  A  text-book  in  his  hand  becomes  alive.'1''* 

The  Range  of  Object-teaching. — "It  draws  its  mate- 
rials from  all  branches  of  knowledge,  dealing  with  things  which 
can  interest  the  child  or  exercise  his  mind.  Thus  it  is  Natural 
History  for  children ;  for  it  directs  their  attention  to  animals  of 
all  classes,  domestic  and  others,  their  qualities,  habits,  uses, — to 
trees,  and  plants,  and  flowers, — to  the  metals,  and  other  minerals, 
which  are  in  constant  use. 

"  It  is  Physical  Science  for  children ;  for  it  leads  them  to  ob- 
serve the  phenomena  of  nature,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and 
the  seasons,  with  the  light  and  heat  which  mark  the  changes  of 
weather,  with  clouds,  rain,  dew,  snow,  and  the  properties  of  the 
bodies  which  form  the  mass  of  matter  around  us. 

"  It  is  Domestic  Economy  for  children ;  for  it  exhibits  to  them 
the  things  and  processes  daily  used  in  their  homes,  and  the  way 
to  use  them  rightly. 

"  It  is  Industrial  and  Social  economy  for  children  ;  for  it  leads 

*  Greene. 


32  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

them  to  observe  the  various  trades,  and  processes  in  different  art- 
occupations,  and  the  arrangements  as  to  the  division  of  labor 
which  society  has  sanctioned  for  carrying  these  on  in  harmony 
and  mutual  dependence. 

"  It  is  Physiology  for  children ;  for  it  causes  them  to  learn 
from  their  own  bodies  the  uses  of  the  various  members  for  phys- 
ical and  mental  ends,  and  tells  the  way  to  use  them  best  to  avoid 
their  abuse. 

"  It  is  the  Science  of  Common  Things  for  children ;  for  it  dis- 
regards nothing  which  can  come  under  their  notice  in  their  con- 
tact with  the  world  around  them,  and  in  their  intercourse  with 
their  fellows  or  their  superiors."* 

"  Object  Lessons  should  be  extended  to  a  range  of  things  far 
wider  than  now.  They  should  include  those  of  the  fields  and 
the  hedges,  the  quarry  and  the  sea-shore.  They  should  not  cease 
with  early  childhood,  but  should  be  so  kept  up  during  youth  as 
insensibly  to  merge  into  the  investigations  of  the  naturalist  and 
the  man  of  science. 

"  Having  gained  due  familiarity  with  the  simpler  properties 
of  inorganic  objects,  the  child  should  by  the  same  process  be  led 
on  to  a  like  exhaustive  examination  of  the  things  it  picks  up  in 
its  daily  walks — the  less  complex  facts  they  present  being  alone 
noticed  at  first.  In  plants,  the  color,  number,  and  forms  of  the 
petals,  and  shapes  of  the  stalks  and  leaves.  In  insects,  the  num- 
ber of  the  wings,  legs,  antennae,  and  their  colors.  As  these  be- 
come fully  appreciated  and  invariably  observed,  further  facts  may 
be  successively  introduced.  Here  we  have  but  to  follow  Nature's 
leadings.  Where  can  be  seen  an  intenser  delight  than  that  of 
children  picking  up  new  flowers,  and  watching  new  insects,  or 
hoarding  pebbles  and  shells  ? 

"The  consistent  follower  of  Bacon,  the  'servant  and  interpreter 
of  Nature,'  will  see  that  we  ought  modestly  to  adopt  the  course 
of  culture  thus  indicated."! 

*  James  Currie,  Principal  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Training  College. 
t  Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  Education. 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE,  DIRECTION,  AND  DISTANCE.          33 


PLACE,  DIBECTION,  AND  DISTANCE. 

INTRODUCTORY  TO  GEOGRAPHY. 

IDEAS  of  location  and  direction  are  necessary  to  an  un- 
derstanding of  even  the  most  elementary  lessons  in  Ge- 
ography. Before  children  can  comprehend  the  relative 
location  of  countries  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  they 
must  have  observed  the  position  of  objects  around  them, 
and  the  direction  of  the  same  from  each  other  and  from 
themselves.  Some  ideas  of  such  things  are  usually  ac- 
quired by  children,  even  when  left  to  their  own  experi- 
ence ;  but  their  knowledge  of  location  and  direction  will 
remain  too  indefinite  to  be  of  much  utility  in  learning 
geography  without  special  training  on  this  matter  in  the 
school -room.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  following 
Lessons  on  Place  and  Direction  have  been  introduced, 
with  a  view  to  leading  children  to  notice  carefully  the 
objects  and  scenery  around  the  school  and  home,  and 
insure  the  necessary  preparation  for  elementary  steps  in 
Geography. 

These  preparatory  lessons  will  differ  as  widely  as  the 
locations  of  the  schools  and  the  homes  and  the  objects 
and  scenery  surrounding  them  differ,  and  therefore  they 
must  always  be  given  orally.  Not  only  must  they  be 
given  without  text-books,  but  they  must  be  made  up  from 
actual  observations  and  experience  of  the  pupils. 

The  following  lessons  are  intended  only  to  explain  the 
manner  of  conducting  this  oral  training,  and  not  as  some- 
thing to  be  taught  to  the  pupils. 

2* 


34  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  PLACE. 

FIRST  SERIES  OF  EXERCISES. 

First  Exercise.  —  Teach  the  children  to  distinguish  the 
right  and  left  hands ;  right  and  left  arms,  elbows,  shoulders,  ears, 
eyes,  cheeks,  feet,  and  various  objects  to  the  right  and  to  the  left 
of  the  pupils.  In  doing  this  the  teacher  may  ask : 

Which  is  your  right  hand  ?  "Which  is  your  left  hand  ?  Hold 
your  book  in  your  right  hand.  Take  your  book  in  your  left  hand. 
Who  sits  at  your  right  side  ?  Who  sits  at  your  left  side  ?  What 
things  can  you  see  on  the  left  side  of  the  room  ?  What  things  can 
you  see  on  the  right  side  of  the  room  ?  Stand  on  your  right  foot. 
Rest  on  your  left  foot. 

When  the  children  can  readily  distinguish  right  and  left  posi- 
tions, they  may  be  led  to  understand  the  terms  front,  back,  rear, 
before,  behind,  above,  over,  below,  under,  by  the  side  of,  etc.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  holding  a  book  or  other  object  above 
the  table,  below  it,  by  the  side  of  it,  to  the  left  of  it,  before  it, 
etc.,  and  requesting  the  pupils  to  tell,  in  each  instance,  where  the 
object  is  held. 

Second  Exercise. — Place  three  objects  on  a  table  in  front 
of  the  class — one  on  each  end,  and  one  in  the  middle  of  the  ta- 
ble; as  a  cupj  a  book,  and  a  slate.  Then  require  the  pupils  to 
observe  and  tell  where  each  object  is  located,  thus : 

The  cup  is  in  the  middle  of  the  table.  The  book  is  on  the  right- 
hand  end.  The  slate  is  on  the  left-hand  end  of  the  table. 

'When  several  of  the  pupils  have  described  the  position  of 
the  objects,  each  may  be  changed  to  another  place,  and  the  pu- 
pils requested  to  describe  the  new  location.  Afterward  all  the 
objects  may  be  removed,  and  different  pupils  called  upon  to  place 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— PLACE.  35 

theni  in  their  former  positions.     Then  they  may  be  required  to 
place  them  as  directed,  thus : 

Place  the  cup  on  the  nearest  right-hand  corner.  Place  the  book 
on  the  farthest  left-hand  corner,  etc. 

Third  Exercise. — Place  four  objects  on  the  table,  and  re- 
quest different  pupils  to  describe  the  position  of  each,  as  in  the 
last  exercise. 

Remove  the  objects,  and  then  let  the  pupils  place  them  in  the 
positions  which  they  occupied  when  described. 

Afterward  let  pupils  go  to  the  table,  singly  as  called  upon,  and 
each  place  an  object  in  a  position  as  described  by  the  teacher. 

Continue  these  exercises,  as  before,  with  five  objects. 

During  the  preceding  exercises  the  several  pupils  should  be  al- 
lowed to  take  an  active  part  in  each  until  they  have  become  suf- 
ficiently familiar  with  position,  or  place,  to  be  able  to  distinguish 
the  position  of  several  objects,  and  to  replace  them  after  they 
have  been  removed. 

Representing  Position. — When  the  pupils  are  able  to 
describe  the  position  of  objects,  and  to  place  them  in  position 
from  descriptions,  and  to  replace  them  from  memory,  they  may 
be  taught  to  represent  their  positions  on  the  blackboard  and  on 
slates. 

Having  placed  three  objects  on  the  table  so  that  one  stands  in 
the  centre,  one  in  the  front  right-hand  corner,  one  in  the  back 
left-hand  corner — the  teacher  may  show  the  pupils  how  to  repre- 
sent the  surface  of  the  table  on  the  blackboard,  and  the  position 
of  each  object  on  it,  somewhat  in  the  following  manner : 

I  wish  to  draw  lines  on  the  blackboard  to  represent  the  sides 
and  ends  of  this  table  or  its  boundaries,  so  that  you  will  see  there 
the  shape  of  its  surface ;  also  to  place  marks  to  show  the  position 
of  each  object  on  the  table.  I  wish  to  represent  the  position  of  the 
table  and  these  objects,  just  as  they  would  appear  to  you  were  I  to 
take  up  the  top  of  the  table  and  place  it  against  the  blackboard,  as 
I  now  take  up  this  slate  and  place  it  against  the  blackboard. 

Teacher.  Now  please  tell  me  where  I  shall  draw  the  line  to  rep- 
resent the  back  edge  of  the  table. 

Pupils.  Across  the  blackboard,  above  the  middle. 


36  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Teacher.  Where  shall  I  draw  the  line  to  represent  the  front  edge 
of  the  table  ? 

Pupils.  Across  the  blackboard,  below  the  middle. 

T.  Where  shall  I  draw  the  line  to  represent  the  left  end  of  the  table  ? 

P.  From  the  upper  to  the  lower  line,  near  the  left  side  of  the 
blackboard. 

T.  Where  shall  I  draw  the  line  to  represent  the  right  end  of  the 
table  ? 

P.  From  the  upper  to  the  lower  line,  near  the  right  side  of  the 
blackboard. 

T.  Now  we  have  the  shape  of  the  surface  of  the  table  represent- 
ed, who  can  tell  me  where  to  make  marks  to  show  the  position  of 
the  book  on  the  table  ? 

P.  Make  them  at  the  right  side,  near  the  lower  corner. 

T.  Where  shall  I  make  marks  to  show  the  position  of  this  cube 
on  the  table  ? 

P.  Make  a  small  square  in  the  centre  of  the  drawing  on  the 
blackboard. 

T.  Where  shall  I  make  marks  to  show  the  position  of  the  bell  on 
the  table  ? 

P.  Make  a  circle  at  the  left  side,  near  the  upper  corner. 

The  teacher  will  please  notice  that  in  each  case  the 
pupils  are  called  to  observe  and  describe,  and  thus  direct 
what  the  teacher  shall  do.  The  teacher  must  see  that  the 
pupils  do  their  own  part  of  the  observing,  thinking,  and 
describing,  while  he  represents  what  they  describe,  and 
also  requires  them  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  rep- 
resentation is  correct. 

After  two  or  three  representations  of  the  surface  of 
the  table,  with  the  position  of  three  or  more  objects  upon 
it,  have  thus  been  drawn  on  the  blackboard,  the  pupils 
may  make  a  copy  of  the  representation  upon  their  slates. 
They  may  also  be  called  to  locate  the  objects  in  the  draw- 
ing upon  the  blackboard,  and  to  represent  their  positions 
on  the  table. 

These  exercises  will  prepare  the  pupils  for  understand- 
ing the  use  of  maps  when  instruction  in  elementary  ge- 
ography is  commenced. 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— PLACE.  37 


SECOND  SERIES  OF  EXERCISES. 

First  Exercise. — Lead  the  pupils  to  describe  the  location 
of  several  objects  in  the  school-room,  somewhat  after  this  manner : 

The  door  is  in  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  room. 

The  windows  are  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  room. 

The  stove  is  in  the  centre  of  the  room. 

The  teacher's  desk  is  in  the  front  part  of  the  room. 

The  chair  is  back  of  the  teacher's  desk. 

The  closet  is  at  the  right  of  the  desk. 

The  teacher  may  also  ask  questions  similar  to  the  following : 

Where  is  the  ceiling  of  this  room  ?  Where  is  the  blackboard  ? 
What  room  is  nearest  this  ?  What  room  on  the  left  of  this  ?  What 
room  back  of  this  ?  How  many  class-rooms  are  there  on  this  floor  ? 

Represent  the  shape  of  this  room  on  the  blackboard,  and  the 
position  of  the  prominent  objects  in  the  room  that  occupy  space 
on  the  floor.  Let  pupils  copy  the  representation  on  their  slates. 

Second  Exercise. — Request  the  pupils  to  draw  on  their 
slates  the  boundaries  of  the  class-room,  and  represent  the  posi- 
tion of  the  objects  in  it  from  their  own  observation. 

Third  Exercise. — Let  the  pupils  draw  the  outline  shape 
of  one  floor  of  the  school  building,  an*d  represent  the  location  of 
the  several  rooms  on  the  floor. 

Other  Exercises.— Talk  with  the  pupils  about  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  rooms  at  home,  and  encourage  them  to  make  draw- 
ings of  single  rooms,  also  of  several  rooms  of  a  house,  as  kitchen, 
dining-room,  pantry,  hall,  parlor,  bedroom,  etc. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  represent  the  location  of  objects  about 
the  school-house,  as  streets,  yards,  etc. 


38  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  DIRECTION. 

First  Exercise— Simple  Direction. — The  first  lesson 
may  be  a  simple  one  of  direction  alone.  Request  the  children  to 
point  toward  objects  in  the  school-room  ;  then  toward  the  streets 
near,  as  each  is  named  by  the  teacher ;  also  toward  the  nearest 
house,  store,  church,  railroad,  river,  pond,  canal,  mountain,  hill, 
village,  etc. 

Of  course  the  location  of  the  school,  and  the  objects  surround- 
ing it,  must  determine  what  the  teacher  will  ask  the  pupils  to 
point  at. 

Second  Exercise  —  To  Show  the  Necessity  of 
Fixed  Points  of  Direction. — For  the  accomplishment  of 
this  purpose  the  teacher  might  say  to  the  pupils:  "When  I 
asked  you  about  the  position  of  different  objects  in  this  room, 
you  said  that  one  of  them  was  located  at  your  right  hand,  an- 
other one  at  your  left  hand,  and  so  on.  Now  observe  where  I 
stand,  and  tell  me  which  w!iy  I  must  walk  to  go  to  the  door." 

"  You  must  go  toward  the  right." 

After  turning  half-way  around,  the  teacher  says,  "Now  must  I 
go  to  the  right  to  find  the  door  ?" 

"  No,  the  door  is  behind  you." 

Turning  half  around  again,  the  teacher  asks,  "  Must  I  go  to  the 
right,  now,  to  find  the  door?" 

"  No,  the  door  is  in  front  of  you." 

"Thus  you  see  that  you  must  know  where  and  how  the  per- 
son stands  before  you  can  direct  him,  by  the  use  of  the  terms 
right  or  left,  which  way  he  must  go  to  find  any  given  object. 
Suppose  a  person  should  inquire  the  way  to  the  post-office,  could 
you  inform  him  by  saying  '  Go  toward  the  right,'  if  you  did  not 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— DIRECTION.  39 

see  whether  his  right  hand  was  on  the  side  toward  the  post- 
office? 

"  You  perceive  that  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  direct  people 
where  distant  objects  and  places  may  be  found  without  having 
some  fixed  points  of  direction  which  all  understand.  There  are 
such  fixed  points  commonly  known,  and  these  I  propose  to  teach 
you  in  the  next  lesson." 

Third  Exercise— Points  of  Compass.— You  may  point 
in  the  direction  in  which  you  see  the  sun  at  noon.  Very  well.  At 
noon  the  sun  is  in  the  south.  Now  point  toward  the  south. 

Point  in  the  direction  in  which  you  see  the  sun  in  the  morning. 
We  say  the  sun  rises  in  the  morning,  &nd..sets  in  the  evening.  Now 
point  to  the  place  where  the  sun  rises.  Now  point  to  the  place 
where  the  sun  sets. 

The  place  where  the  sun  rises  is  called  the  east.  You  may  point 
toward  the  east. 

The  place  where  the  sun  sets  is  called  the  west.  You  may  point 
toward  the  west. 

What  can  you  see  in  this  room  that  is  east  of  you  ? 

What  can  you  see  that  is  west  of  you  ? 

John,  you  may  walk  in  this  room  toward  the  east. 

James,  you  may  walk  toward  the  west. 

My  bedroom  has  windows  on  one  side  of  it.  In  the  morning, 
when  the  sun  rises,  it  shines  in  at  my  windows.  On  which  side  of 
the  house  is  my  bedroom  ?  On  which  side  of  my  room  are  the 
windows  ? 

Does  the  sun  shine  into  your  bedroom  in  the  morning  ? 

Through  which  window  in  the  school-room  will  the  sun  shine  in 
the  morning  ?  Through  which  in  the  afternoon  ? 

As  I  was  walking  the  other  day,  I  saw  the  sun  before  me,  appear- 
ing like  a  very  large  red  ball,  sinking  behind  the  hills.  In  what 
direction  must  I  have  been  walking  ? 

At  the  close  of  the  lesson  the  children  may  repeat : 

The  place  where  the  sun  rises  is  called  the  east.  The  place  where  the 
sun  sets  is  called  the  west.  The  place  where  we  see  the  sun  at  noon  is 
called  south. 

Fourth  Exercise  —  Points  of  Compass.— You  may 
point  toward  the  east.  Point  toward  the  west.  You  may  now 
point  in  the  direction  in  which  you  see  the  sun  at  noon.  What 


40  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

is  the  place  called  where  the  sun  is  seen  at  noon?  You  may 
point  toward  the  south. 

The  class  may  stand  with  backs  toward  the  south,  and  right 
hands  toward  the  east.  Now  the  direction  in  front  of  you  is  called 
the  north.  You  may  point  toward  the  north. 

Point  toward  the  west  with  your  left  hand. 

Turn  your  face  toward  the  south.  Now  point  toward  the  east 
with  your  left  hand,  and  toward  the  west  with  your  right  hand. 

Once  more  stand  with  your  right  hand  toward  the  east  and  your 

left  hand  toward  the  west.  The  point  before  you  is  called ,* 

and  the  point  behind  you  is  called  the .*  The  point  at  your 

right  hand  is .*  The  point  at  your  left  hand  is .* 

Four  pupils  may  now  be  called  upon  to  walk,  in  the  school-room, 
in  the  direction  of  the  four  points  of  compass.  Let  each  pupil  be 
required  to  tell,  before  returning  to  his  seat,  in  what  direction  he 
walked,  also  in  what  direction  he  must  go  to  return  to  his  seat. 

The  class  may  stand  facing  the  north.  Now  point  in  the  direc- 
tion between  north  and  east.  The  point  between  north  and  east  is 
called  north-east. 

Now  point  in  the  direction  between  north  and  west.  The  point 
between  north  and  west  is  called  north-west. 

The  class  may  face  toward  the  south.  Now  point  in  the  direction 
between  south  and  east.  The  point  between  south  and  east  is  called 
south-east.  Point  toward  the  south-east. 

Point  in  the  direction  between  south  and  west.  The  point  be- 
tween south  and  west  is  called  south-west.  Point  toward  the  south- 
west. 

The  class  may  now  point  as  I  name  the  direction : — south ;  south- 
west; south-east;  east;  north;  north-east;  north -west;  west; 
south-west;  north-east;  south-east;  north;  south;  etc. 

When  the  members  of  the  entire  class  are  thus  called  to  point 
simultaneously,  it  is  necessary  to  train  them  to  be  self-reliant,  and 
to  point  without  waiting  to  see  how  their  class-mates  do.  To 
secure  this  independent  action  of  each  pupil  let  the  teacher  point 
at  the  same  time  in  a  different  direction  from  the  one  given  to 
the  class,  thus : 

Teacher  says,  "Point  to  the  east;"  but  at  the  same  time  the 
teacher  points  toward  the  south.  Teacher  says,  "  Point  toward  the 


*  Let  the  children  supply  the  ellipsis. 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— DIRECTION.  41 

north,"  but  points  toward  the  west.     Teacher  says,  "Point  toward 
the  south-east,"  but  points  toward  the  south-west. 

By  this  means  the  children  soon  learn  to  point  toward  the 
direction  named,  regardless  of  the  way  in  which  others  point. 

This  plan  will  materially  aid  in  training  the  pupils  to  know  all 
the  points  of  the  compass  with  certainty,  and  also  is  suitable  for 
rapidly  reviewing  large  classes  in  this  subject. 

"Boxing  the  Compass."  —  Beside  the  eight  points  of 
compass,  already  named,  there  are  eight  others,  making  sixteen 
altogether.  All  of  these  are  used  by  sailors.  A  sailor  is  said  to 
be  able  to  "Box  the  Compass"  when  he  can  name  these  sixteen 
points  in  their  order,  thus  : 

North,  north-north-east,  north-east,  east-north-east,  east,  east-south- 
east, south-east,  south -south -east,  south,  south -south -west,  south- 
west, west-south-west,  west,  west-north-west,  north-west,  north-north- 
west. 

Fifth  Exercise. — When  the  pupils  have  learned  to  point 
out  and  name  each  of  the  eight  directions  commonly  known  as 
"  the  points  of  compass,"  let  them  be  required  to  apply  this 
knowledge  in  stating  the  directions  of  objects  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  school. 

Let  them  tell  what  direction  different  members  of  the  class 
must  take  in  coming  to  school,  also  what  directions  must  be 
taken  by  them  in  going  home. 

Suppose  you  were  walking  toward  the  north  in  the  morning,  over 
which  shoulder  would  you  look  for  the  sun  ?  Which  way  would 
you  look  for  the  sun  if  walking  north  in  the  afternoon  ?  Suppose 
you  were  walking  toward  the  sun  at  noon,  in  what  direction  would 
you  be  gping  ? 

Does  a  street  cross  the  one  which  passes  by  the  school -room  ? 
In  what  direction  does  it  run  ?  Which  way  from  us  is  that  street  ? 
Do  any  of  you  live  on  it  ?  If  you  were  going  home,  in  what  direc- 
tions would  you  go  ? 


42  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  DISTANCE. 

IN  the  natural  modes  of  learning,  children  take  notice  of  dis- 
tance as  well  as  of  direction.  This,  therefore,  becomes  an  im- 
portant item  in  the  elementary  steps  of  instruction  preparatory 
to  lessons  in  geography.  Inasmuch  as  the  subjects  of  "  Size," 
"  Length,"  "  Measure,"  "  Distance,"  etc.,  have  been  presented  in 
"Primary  Object  Lessons"  [on  pages  261-281],  the  teacher  will 
do  well  to  examine  what  is  said  there  relative  to  the  more  ele- 
mentary steps  in  the  presentation  of  these  subjects,  and  espe- 
cially the  suggestions  pertaining  to  "Distance"  [on  page  275]. 

In  addition  to  the  lessons  there  presented,  it  is  also  desirable 
that  the  teacher  should  give  a  few  exercises  which  will  cause  the 
pupils  to  associate  ideas  of  direction  and  distance  as  their  at- 
tention is  given  to  familiar  objects,  places,  etc.,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  school-house,  during  these  lessons  introductory  to  geog- 
raphy. 

First  Exercise — Naming  Relative  Distances. — Re- 
quest the  pupils  to  name  two  streets  running  the  same  way,  and 
tell  which  is  more  distant.  Let  them  name  the  pupils  that  live 
nearest  to  the  school  in  the  same  direction  from  it,  also  those 
that  live  most  distant.  Let  them  name  streams,  hills,  ponds, 
orchards,  fields,  etc.,  that  are  near,  and  those  that  are  distant. 
Let  them  also  name  objects,  buildings,  or  places  that  are  in  dif- 
ferent directions  from  the  school,  and  tell  which  are  nearer  and 
which  more  distant.  Let  them  mention  places  that  are  about 
half  a  mile  distant,  also  those  that  are  a  mile  distant,  etc. 

Representing  Relative  Distances^ — The  teacher  may 
now  represent  on  the  blackboard  the  direction  and  relative  dis- 
tances of  several  of  the  objects,  places,  etc.,  named,  and  then  re- 
quest the  pupils  to  copy  these  on  their  slates.  Afterward  the 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— DISTANCE.  43 

pupils  may  be  requested  to  represent  on  their  slates  the  direc- 
tion and  relative  distances  of  other  places,  as  the  teacher  names 
them. 

The  pupils  may  represent  the  location  of  the  school-room  near 
the  centre  of  their  slates ;  then  draw  lines  to  represent  the  streets 
that  pass  the  school. 

Direct  the  pupils  to  write  North  at  the  top  of  the  slate,  South  at 
the  bottom,  East  at  the  right-hand  side,  West  at  the  left-hand  side. 
Then  request  them  to  represent  the  objects,  places,  etc.,  that  are 
north  of  the  school,  in  their  relative  positions  toward  the  top  of  the 
slate ;  then  the  places  that  are  south  of  the  school  toward  the  bot- 
tom of  the  slate ;  and  those  east  of  the  school  toward  the  right-hand 
side ;  and  those  west  of  the  school  toward  the  left-hand  side. 

Similar  exercises  may  be  continued,  as  the  condition  and  prog- 
ress of  the  class  seem  to  demand.  These  will  be  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  they  furnish  the  children  with  something  to  do,  and 
will  aid  in  preparing  them  to  understand  the  representations  by 
maps. 

Such  lessons  may  be  extended  so  as  to  embrace  all  prominent 
objects  and  places  within  the  personal  observation  of  the  pupils ; 
as  churches,  school-houses,  villages,  railroad,  depot,  river,  manu- 
factory, lake,  mountain,  mine,  etc.,  even  though  several  miles 
may  be  included  in  the  distances. 


44  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  BOUNDARIES  AND  MAPS. 

Teacher.  I  will  now  try  to  make  a  drawing  or  map  of  this  room 
on  the  blackboard,  and  I  wish  you  to  tell  me  where  to  place  lines 
to  represent  the  different  parts  of  it.  First  I  will  tell  you  some  im- 
portant facts  which  must  be  remembered  when  drawing  a  map  of 
any  place : 

The  marks  representing  the  north  part,  side,  or  end  of  the  object 
must  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  blackboard  or  slate,  and  those  rep- 
resenting the  south  part  at  the  bottom  of  the  board ;  those  repre- 
senting the  east  at  the  right-hand  side;  those  representing  the  west 
at  the  left-hand  side. 

I  will  write  the  words  North,  South,  East,  West,  on  the  top,  bottom, 
and  sides  of  the  blackboard  to  help  you  in  remembering  what  I 
have  just  told  you. 

Now  where  shall  I  draw  a  line  to  represent  the  north  end  of  this 
room  ? 

Pupils.  Near  the  top  of  the  blackboard.  [The  teacher  then  draws 
a  horizontal  line  near  the  top  of  the  blackboard.] 

T.  Where  must  I  make  a  line  to  represent  the  south  end  of  this 
room  ? 

P.  Near  the  bottom  of  the  blackboard.  [The  teacher  draws  a 
line  in  the  proper  position.] 

T.  Point  toward  the  east  side  of  the  room.  Where  shall  I  draw 
a  line  to  represent  that  side  ? 

P.  On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  blackboard.  [The  teacher 
draws  a  vertical  line  on  the  right-hand  side,  so  as  to  connect  the 
two  horizontal  lines  previously  made.] 

T.  Point  toward  the  west  side  of  this  room.  Where  shall  I  draw 
a  line  to  represent  that  side  ? 

P.  On  the  left-hand  side  of  the  blackboard.  [The  teacher  makes 
the  line  in  its  proper  position.] 

T.  What  shape  do  these  four  lines  form  ? 

P.  An  oblong,  or  parallelogram. 

T.  Now  observe  and  tell  me  in  which  direction  this  room  is 
longer.  Does  the  drawing  on  the  blackboard  represent  the  room 
longer  from  north  to  south  than  from  east  to  west  ?  Now  take  your 
slates  and  copy  the  drawing,  which  I  made  to  represent  this  room, 
on  your  slates. 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS— BOUNDARIES  AND   MAPS.         45 

Where  did  you  make  the  line  to  represent  the  north  end  of  the 
room  ?  On  what  part  of  your  slate  did  you  draw  the  line  to  repre- 
sent the  east  side  of  the  room  ? 

Now  tell  me  what  part  of  the  room  these  four  lines  represent. 
Have  we  drawn  anything  to  show  where  the  door  and  windows 
are  ?  Look  at  the  door  and  then  tell  me  in  which  part  of  the  room 
it  is. 

Pupils.  The  door  is  in  the  north  end  of  the  room,  near  the  west 
side. 

Teacher.  Then  where  shall  I  make  marks  to  show  the  position  of 
the  door  ? 

Look  at  the  windows  and  tell  me  where  they  are.  Where  shall  I 
make  marks  to  show  the  position  of  the  windows  in  this  room  ? 

We  now  have  a  drawing  of  the  walls  of  this  room,  and  the  places 
for  the  door  and  windows  marked.  Now  you  may  place  marks 
in  the  drawings  on  your  slates  to  show  where  the  door  and  win- 
dows are. 

Next  we  will  make  marks  to  show  where  my  desk  stands ;  then 
some  for  the  stove ;  then  some  to  represent  the  places  for  your  seats. 

Thus  proceed  until  the  drawing  on  the  blackboard  represents 
the  positions  of  the  principal  objects  in  the  room,  and  then  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  copy  the  same  on  their  slates. 

It  might  be  well  to  draw  an  outline  of  the  school-room  on  the 
floor  with  chalk,  then  to  select  objects  to  represent  the  different 
articles  of  furniture,  and  request  the  pupils  to  place  them  in  their 
relative  positions  within  this  drawing. 

Boundaries. — Teacher.  What  parts  of  the  room  do  the  lines 
which  I  drew  on  the  blackboard  to  show  the  shape  of  this  room 
represent  ? 

Pupils.  The  walls  of  the  room. 

T.  How  many  walls  has  this  room  ?  Then  this  room  has  a  wall 
on  each  of  its  four  sides.  These  walls  are  the  boundaries  of  the 
room  ;  they  fix  its  size.  How  many  walls  bound  this  room  ?  How 
did  I  represent  these  walls,  or  boundaries,  on  the  blackboard  ? 

P.  By  four  lines. 

T.  You  say  that  the  walls  bound  a  room ;  now  if  you  should  see  a 
yard  with  a  fence  on  each  of  its  sides,  what  would  you  say  bounds 
the  yard  ? 

P.  The  fence. 

T.  Yes,  the  fences  around  yards,  or  the  fences  or  stone  walla 


4:6  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

around  fields  bound  the  yards  or  fields.  In  the  city  a  square,  or 
block,  is  bounded  by  streets.  So  if  you  wish  to  make  a  map  or 
drawing  of  a  field,  you  must  draw  lines  to  represent  its  fences ;  if 
you  wish  to  make  a  map  of  a  block  or  square  in  the  city,  you  must 
draw  lines  to  represent  the  streets  that  surround  it. 

Play-groTinds. — For  the  next  lesson  the  teacher  may  show 
the  pupils,  as  before,  how  to  draw  a  plan  or  map  of  the  play- 
grounds, or  school-yard.  The  teacher  may  talk  with  the  pupils, 
and  question  them  somewhat  as  follows,  but  of  course  adapting 
the  conversation  to  the  circumstances,  objects,  etc.,  which  sur- 
round the  school : 

You  have  learned  about  the  school -room,  and  how  to  make  a 
drawing  of  it  on  your  slates ;  now  we  will  make  a  drawing  of  the 
play-ground  and  of  the  street.  Which  way  from  the  school-room  is 
the  play-ground  ?  Which  way  is  the  street  ?  Where  shall  I  draw 
the  line  to  represent  the  north  end  of  the  play-ground  ?  Where  the 
line  for  the  south  end  ? 

Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with  all  the  lines  for  the  boundaries ; 
then  locate  the  objects  of  the  play-ground,  as  the  swing,  the  place 
for  ball-playing,  etc. 

Where  is  the  street  ?  "  In  front  of  the  school-room."  In  what 
direction  does  it  extend  ?  "  North  and  south,"  or  "  cast  and  west," 
as  the  case  may  be.  Do  any  of  you  live  on  this  street  ?  Which  way 
is  your  home  from  the  school-room  ?  Which  one  of  you,  who  does 
not  live  on  this  street,  goes  along  it  on  his  way  home  from  school  ? 

Now  let  us  draw  this  street  on  the  board.  You  said  this  street 
was  in  front  of  the  school-room ;  now  will  you  tell  me  which  way 
the  front  is?  "West."  Then  the  street  passes  along  the  west  side 
of  the  school-room.  In  what  directions  did  you  tell  me  it  extended  ? 
If  it  extends  north  and  south,  how  must  I  place  the  lines  on  the 
board  to  represent  it  ?  "  You  must  draw  them  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom."  Now  draw  them  on  your  slates. 

Does  any  street  cross  the  one  which  passes  by  the  school-room? 
In  what  direction  does  that  run  ?  Which  way  from  us  is  that  street  ? 
Do  any  of  you  live  on  it  ?  If  you  were  going  home,  in  what  direc- 
tion would  you  go  ?  How  shall  I  represent  it  on  the  board  ? 

Similar  questions  may  be  asked  about  all  the  principal  streets 
in  the  vicinity,  and  each  one  drawn ;  and  while  doing  this,  the 
children  should  be  led  to  observe  "  relative  distances." 


ILLUSTRATED   LESSONS— BOUNDARIES  AND  MAPS.         47 

When  the  pupils  become  able  to  make  good  representations 
of  the  school-room  and  play-grounds,  as  already  described,  they 
may  be  taught  to  represent  in  a  similar  manner  the  streets,  build- 
ings, etc.,  situated  near  the  school ;  or,  if  the  school  be  in  the 
country,  the  pupils  may  represent  the  boundaries  of  the  fields  in 
the  vicinity. 

Scale  of  a  Map.  —  To  give  the  pupils  some  idea  of  a 
"  scale  of  maps,"  the  teacher  may  draw  two  maps  of  the  school- 
room on  the  blackboard — one  quite  small,  and  the  other  about 
four  times  longer  and  wider;  then  request  the  pupils  to  observe 
and  tell  how  they  differ.  Care  should,  be  taken  to  have  the 
pupils  notice  that  the  two  drawings  are  alike  in  shape,  and  that 
they  differ  in  size  only. 

One  pupil  may  take  a  foot-rule  and  measure  the  blackboard, 
to  find  its  length  and  its  width.  One  pupil  may  measure  one 
side  of  this  class-room,  and  another  one  may  measure  one  end 
of  it. 

"  The  blackboard  is  six  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide." 

"  This  room  is  twenty-four  feet  long." 

"  It  is  eighteen  feet  wide." 

Draw  Class-room  by  Scale. — Very  well;  now  we  will  make  a 
drawing  of  this  room  on  the  blackboard.  Let  us  make  the  length 
of  it  twenty-four  inches,  and  the  width  eighteen  inches ;  then  each 
inch  of  the  drawing  will  represent  one  foot  of  the  room. 

Which  end  of  the  room  did  you  measure?  "The  north  end." 
How  many  feet  is  it?  "Eighteen  feet."  How  many  inches  long 
must  I  draw  the  line  to  represent  this  end  ?  "  Eighteen  inches 
long." 

Where  must  I  place  the  line  to  represent  the  north  boundary  of 
any  object?  "At  the  top  of  the  board." 

Which  side  did  you  measure?  "The  east  side."  Then  where 
must  I  draw  the  line  on  the  board  to  represent  the  boundary  on  the 
east  side  ?  "  At  the  right  side  of  the  board,  from  the  end  of  the 
line  that  represents  the  north  end,  downward." 

Where  must  I  draw  a  line  to  represent  the  boundary  of  the  west 
side  of  the  room  ?  "  At  the  left  side  of  the  board,  from  the  end  of 
the  line  that  represents  the  north  end." 

How  long  is  the  south  end  of  this  room  ?     "  Eighteen  feet." 


48  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

How  long  and  where  must  I  draw  a  line  to  represent  this  south 
boundary  ?  "  Draw  a  line  eighteen  inches  long,  so  that  it  will  unite 
the  lower  ends  of  the  lines  drawn  at  the  sides  of  the  blackboard." 

Now  these  four  lines  represent  the  sides  and  ends  of  this  room. 
Each  inch  of  the  lines  represents  one  foot  of  the  room. 

Let  us  proceed  to  represent  the  position  of  the  door.  How  can 
we  determine  where  to  place  the  marks  that  show  this  place? 
"Measure  and  find  how  many  feet  the  door  is  from  the  nearest 
corner." 

"It  is  on  the  east  side, five  feet  from  the  north-east  corner;  and 
the  door  is  about  three  feet  wide." 

Then  place  your  marks  to  show  the  position  of  the  cloor  three 
inches  apart,  and  five  inches  from  the  upper  corner  on  the  right- 
hand  side. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  teacher  may  require  the  pupils  to  de- 
termine where  to  place  marks  to  represent  the  position  of  the 
desk,  stove,  wardrobe,  and  other  objects  in  the  class-room.  They 
may  copy  the  drawing  of  the  class-room  on  their  slates,  observ- 
ing the  correct  proportions  between  the  length  and  width. 

Draw  Play- ground  by  Scale. — Two  or  three  other  lessons 
may  be  given  for  illustrating  the  scale  of  maps.  Pupils  might 
take  a  yardstick  and  find  how  many  yards  long  and  wide  the 
play-ground  is ;  then  draw  the  form  of  the  play-ground  on  the 
blackboard,  making  the  boundary  lines  one  inch  for  each  yard. 

Draw  the  Vicinity  of  the  School. — Draw  the  block  on  which 
the  school  is  located ;  or  draw  the  vicinity  of  the  school,  to  the 
extent  of  twenty  or  thirty  rods,  and  let  one  inch  represent  a  rod. 

Find  Scale  of  a  Map. — Take  a  good  map  of  the  village  or 
city  in  which  the  school  is  located,  and  teach  the  children  how  to 
find  the  scale  upon  which  it  is  drawn.  Then  let  them  find  the 
location  of  familiar  places  on  the  map,  and  by  use  of  the  scale  of 
the  map  determine  how  far  one  place  is  from  another.  In  the 
country  a  good  county  or  town  map  would  be  very  valuable  for 
teaching  the  use  of  maps,  and  how  the  places  are  represented  on 
them. 


THE  STUDY  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  49 


GEOGRAPHY. 

"Knowledge  of  the  nearest  things  should  be  acquired  first, then  that  of 
those  farther  aud  farther  off."— COMENIUS. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  geography  must  commence  with 
things  about  the  child's  home,  and  proceed  along  the  line 
of  his  personal  experiences  to  objects  and  places  more 
distant.  The  ideas  thus  gained  within  the  sphere  of  the 
child's  walks,  rides,  and  journeys  constitute  the  known 
by  means  of  which  he  can  acquire  a  knowledge  of  more 
distant  places  and  countries.  In  this  manner  the  young 
learner  becomes  familiar  with  the  meaning  of  many  terms 
used  in  geography — as  brook,  creek,  river,  spring,  lake, 
pond,  shore,  island,  hill,  mountain,  valley,  plain,  village, 
city,  railroad,  etc.  —  before  he  is  required  to  learn  the 
definitions  of  these  forms  of  land  and  water. 

But  the  limit  of  the  available  experiences  of  the  child, 
through  his  observations  of  the  different  features  of  land 
and  water,  will  be  reached  within  a  few  months  from  the 
time  that  this  instruction  in  the  elements  of  geography 
begins.  Then  the  period  will  arrive  when  geography 
must  be  taken  up  with  a  description  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole,  and  continued  from  the  shape  of  the  earth  as  a 
globe  to  its  surface  of  land  and  water;  its  continents  and 
oceans ;  its  islands,  plains,  and  mountains ;  its  seas,  lakes, 
and  rivers ;  its  countries,  peoples,  animals,  and  produc- 
tions. Here,  again,  the  child's  acquaintance  with  various 
objects,  animals,  productions,  and  people  from  different 
nations  should  be  employed  for  enabling  the  young 
learner  to  realize  that  the  distant  countries  are  just  as 

3 


50  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

real  as  the  most  familiar  places  in  the  vicinity  of  his  own 
home. 

Geography  is  the  most  comprehensive  of  all  the 
branches  of  school  instruction,  and  may  be  made  the 
most  interesting  of  studies  if  properly  presented ;  but  it 
will  afford  very  little  interest  or  profit  to  the  pupil  so 
long  as  the  method  of  teaching  it  requires  little  else 
than  the  memorizing  of  the  names  of  rivers,  lakes,  capes, 
islands,  mountains,  isthmuses,  straits,  boundaries,  capitals, 
chief  towns,  etc. 

This  study  leads  the  pupil  to  the  consideration  of  an 
abundance  of  attractive  objects  in  nature  and  art;  the 
diversities  of  soil,  climate,  and  productions  of  the  earth ; 
the  varieties  of  animals,  with  their  many  interesting  hab- 
its; the  different  races  and  nations,  with  their  varied  cus- 
toms, manners,  modes  of  travel,  occupations,  manufactures, 
and  the  records  of  their  deeds  of  valor,  and  wonderful 
discoveries  in  the  sciences.  All  of  these  may  be  made 
living  realities  to  the  young  student  of  geography,  by  the 
proper  use  of  the  experiences  of  the  learner,  through  the 
exercise  of  the  imagination,  a  faculty  which  is  exceeding- 
ly active  in  childhood,  and  of  great  service  in  the  proc- 
esses of  education. 

In  the  succeeding  pages  devoted  to  this  subject  I  shall 
endeavor  to  illustrate  methods  by  which  lessons  in  ele- 
mentary geography  may  be  given  successfully ;  how  the 
teacher  may  proceed  when  taking  up  lessons  upon  the 
earth  as  a  whole,  to  prepare  the  learner  for  gaining  use- 
ful knowledge  of  the  world  through  the  study  of  books. 


LESSONS  IN  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY.  51 


FIRST  LESSONS   IN  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

"Where  to  Begin. — Let  the  first  lessons  in  elementary  geog- 
raphy begin  with  those  features  of  land  and  water  with  which 
the  children  are  already  most  familiar.  Find  out  which  features 
they  know  by  a  conversational  exercise;  then  proceed  by  means 
of  the  known  to  give  them  ideas  of  similar  things  not  so  well 
known.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  for  children  residing  in  differ- 
ent places  the  objects  to  be  considered  in  these  lessons  may  be 
widely  different.  Take  nature  and  the  experiences  of  your  pupils 
as  the  guide  in  determining  what  to  teach,  where  to  commence, 
and  how  to  proceed  with  your  first  lessons  in  elementary  geog- 
raphy. 

When  teaching  definitions,  commence  with,  those  forms  of 
land  or  water  which  the  children  most  frequently  see,  whether  a 
pond,  lake,  river,  bay,  island,  plain,  hill,  mountain,  or  valley. 

Do  not  commence  your  teaching  of  geography  with  the  topic 
given  in  the  first  lessons  of  your  text-book,  because  it  is  the  first 
lesson  in  the  book.  Do  not  even  select  the  same  subject  that 
you  find  given  here  to  illustrate  the  manner  of  conducting  the 
lesson,  unless  it  happens  to  conform  to  the  experiences  of  your 
own  pupils. 

How  to  Proceed. — Commence  by  asking  simple  questions 
that  the  children  can  easily  answer,  and  by  means  of  your  ques- 
tions and  their  replies  direct  the  attention  of  your  pupils  to  the 
subject  of  the  lesson,  and  ascertain  what  they  know  about  it. 
Suppose  you  select  for  your  first  lesson  an  island,  something  sim- 
ilar to  the  following  might  be  your  plan  of  proceeding : 

About  an  Island. — Children,  did  you  ever  notice  the  two  beau- 
tiful trees  in  the  middle  of  the  pond  which  you  pass  on  your  way 
to  school  ?  Did  any  of  you  ever  walk  over  to  those  trees  and  sit 


52 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


on  the  green  grass  in  their  shade  ?    Why  can  you  not  walk  to 
them  ? 

"Because  the  water  is  deep  all  around  them." 
What  do  those  trees  grow  on  ? 
"  On  land." 

How  could  you  get  to  those  trees  ? 
"  By  going  in  a  boat." 

What  do  you  call  a  piece  of  land  with  water  all  around  it  ? 
"An  island." 

Could  there  be  an  island  without  water?    Could  there  be  an 

island  without  land 
or  rocks  ?  What  is 
an  island  ? 

I  will  make  the 
picture  of  an  island, 
and  write  what  an 
island  is,  on  the 
blackboard,  and  you 
may  copy  both  on 
your  slates. 

An  island  is  a  portion  of  land  entirely  surrounded  ty  water. 
Who  has  seen  any  island  besides  the  one  in  the  pond  ?     Where 
was  the  island  that  you  saw  ?     How  many  of  you  have  walked  on 
an  island  ? 

Should  your  first  lesson  be  about  a  hill,  you  might  conduct  it 
somewhat  as  follows : 

About  a  Hill. — How  many  in  this  class  have  sleds  ?  What  do 
you  do  with  them  ? 

"  Draw  them."     "  Ride  on  them." 

When  do  you  ride  on  them  ? 

"  When  there  is  snow  on  the  ground." 

Did  you  ever  ride  on  your  sled  without  having  some  one  to  draw 
it  ?  How  could  you  do  it  ? 

You  say  you  rode  down  a  hill ;  how  did  you  get  on  the  hill  ? 

"  Walked  up  it,  and  drew  my  sled." 

How  many  of  you  have  seen  a  hill  ?  How  many  have  ridden  down 
a  hill  on  a  sled  ?  What  do  you  call  the  highest  part  of  the  hill  ? 

"  The  top." 

What  do  you  call  the  part  of  the  hill  on  which  you  ride  down  ? 

"The  side." 

What  do  you  call  the  part  of  the  hill  where  your  sled  stopped  ? 

"  The  bottom  of  the  hill."     "  The  foot  of  the  hill." 


LESSONS  IN  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY.  53 

Who  will  tell  me  what  a  hill  is  ? 

"  A  hill  is  a  place  where  the  land  is  higher  than  the  land  around 
and  near  it." 

"A  hill  is  a  place  where  the  land  is  elevated  above  the  land 
near  it." 

Very  well.     You  may  say,  A  hill  is  a  small  elevation  of  land. 

Now  write  on  your  slates  what  a  hill  is ;  and  what  the  highest 
part,  and  the  lowest  part,  are  called  ? 

If  your  first  lesson  be  about  a  river  near  your  school,  the  fol- 
lowing questions  will  suggest  the  way  of  proceeding : 

About  a  River.  —  Children,  how  many  of  you  have  seen  the 
stream  of  water  near  the  village  ?  Do  you  think  it  a  large  stream  ? 
Is  it  deep  enough  for  a  boat  to  sail  on  it  ?  What  is  this  stream 
called  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  a  small  stream  of  water  ?  Can  you  tell  me  what 
a  very  small  stream  is  called  ?  Did  you  ever  see  the  place  where  a 
brook  commenced  ?  What  is  such  a  place  called  ?  Is  the  water  of  a 
spring  good  to  drink  ? 

[Of  course  it  is  expected  that  the  pupils  will  say  something  in 
answer  to  most  of  these  questions.  Their  answers  will  suggest  other 
questions.] 

How  many  of  you  have  seen  one  small  stream  flow  into  another 
stream?  If  many  small  streams  should  flow  into  another  stream, 
what  would  these  make  of  the  other  stream  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  a  large  stream  ?  What  do  we  call  a  large,  wide 
stream?  How  many  of  you  have  seen  a  river?  What  was  the  name 
of  the  river?  Did  any  of  you  ever  see  any  other  river?  Where 
was  it  ? 

When  small  streams  flow  into  another  one  and  make  that  larger, 
we  call  them  branches  of  the  large  stream.  Some  rivers  have  a  great 
many  branches. 

Who  can  tell  me  what  a  river  is  ? 

"  A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  water" 

Very  good.     What  makes  a  river  ? 

"Many  small  streams  of  water  flowing  into  one  stream" 

We  say  a  river  has  a  head  and  a  mouth;  which  part  of  the  river 
do  you  think  is  called  the  head?  No  one  has  given  the  right 
answer. 

The  place  where  the  river  rises,  the  spring  where  the  water  first 
comes  out  of  the  ground  and  makes  the  little  stream,  is  called  its 
head.  Sometimes  this  place  is  called  its  source;  i.e.,  the  place  from 


54:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

which  the  water  first  begins  to  flow.  How  many  of  you  have  seen 
a  head  of  a  river,  or  of  a  small  stream  ? 

Now  you  know  where  the  head  of  a  river  is ;  can  any  one  tell  me 
where  to  look  for  the  mouth  of  a  river  ? 

Do  you  know  which  part  of  a  pitcher  is  called  its  mouth  ? 

"  That  part  where  the  water  is  poured  out." 

Now  which  part  of  the  river  may  be  called  its  mouth  ? 

"  The  place  where  the  water  flows  out." 

Rivers  flow  into  other  rivers,  or  into  a  large  body  of  water.  The 
place  where  the  river  flows  into  a  body  of  water  is  called  its  mouth. 
What  is  the  mouth  of  a  river  ? 

What  is  the  land  along  the  sides  of  a  stream  or  river  called  ? 

" The  banks  or  shores" 

Now  who  can  tell  most  about  a  river — where  it  begins — what  that 
place  is  called — what  makes  a  river — what  the  place  where  it  ends 
is  called — and  what  we  call  the  land  along  its  sides. 

I  will  now  write  the  best  answers  on  the  blackboard,  and  then 
you  may  copy  them  on  your  slates. 

"A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  water.  The  place  where  it  rises  is 
its  head.  Several  streams  flowing  together  make  a  river.  The 
place  where  it  ends  is  its  mouth.  The  land  along  its  side  is  called 
the  bank  or  shore." 

About  a  Plain. — Some  of  you  have  seen  long  level  streets,  and 
level  lots,  or  fields,  on  each  side  of  them.  If  you  should  go  in  the 
country  where  the  land  was  level  all  around  you  for  a  long  distance 
each  way,  you  might  call  such  a  place  a  plain.  How  many  of  you 
have  seen  a  plain  ?  What  is  a  plain  ? 

"  A  place  where  all  the  land  is  level" 

About  a  Valley. — When  you  went  to  the  river,  a  few  days 
ago,  to  see  the  new  steamboat,  did  you  go  uphill  all  the  way  ?  Did 
you  go  on  a  level  road  all  the  way  ? 

You  went  downhill  nearly  all  the  way.  Did  you  go  downhill 
when  you  came  from  the  river  ?  When  you  were  by  the  shore  of 
the  river,  could  you  see  the  land  on  the  other  side  ?  Did  you  see 
any  hilis  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  ? 

Then  there  were  hills  on  both  sides  of  the  river;  and  the  river 
flows  through  the  low  land  between  the  hills.  The  low  land  be- 
tween hills  is  called  a  valley^  Where  does  the  river  flow  ? 

"  Through  the  valley." 

What  is  a  valley  ? 

"  A  valley  is  low  land  between  hills." 


LESSONS  IN  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 


55 


How  many  of  you  have  seen  a  valley  ? 
valley  ? 


Is  tliis  school-house  in  a 


About  a  Mountain. — Did  you  ever  see  a  very  large  and  high 
hill  ?  Did  you  ever  try  to  climb  such  a  hill  ?  Some  hills  are  very 
large,  and  so  high  that  it  would  take  you  many  hours  to  climb  up 
to  the  top ;  and  when  you  reached  the 
top  you  would  find  many  rocks,  but  no 
trees.  The  cold  wind  would  blow  so 
hard  there,  even  when  the  day  is  warm 
at  the  foot  of  it,  that  you  would  need 
very  warm  clothing,  such  as  you  wear 
in  the  winter.  Sometimes  the  tops  of 
these  high  hills  are  covered  with  clouds. 
Yfe  call  such  large  and  high  hills  moun- 
tains. Did  you  ever  see  a  mountain  ? 

Here  is  the  picture  of  a  mountain,  on 
the  blackboard.     You  may  copy  it  on  your  slate,  and  write  : 

A  mountain  is  a  very  high  elevation  of  land. 

About  a  Lake. — How  many  of  you  have  seen  'the  lake  where 
the  boys  go  skating  in  the  winter,  and  the  men  go  fishing  in  the 
spring  ?  Does  the  water  of  the  lake  flow  along,  like  the  water  in  a 
river  ?  What  is  on  all  sides  of  the  lake  ? 

"Land." 

What  is  a  lake  ? 

"  A  ~body  of  water  surrounded  by  land." 

Tell  me  some  difference  between  an  island  and  a  lake. 

Now  tell  me  how  the  lake  resembles  an  island. 

I  will  make  a  picture  of  a  lake  on  the  blackboard,  and  you  may 
draw    it    on    your 
slate,  and  write  a  de- 
scription of  a  lake. 

A  Bay. — You  see 
in  this  picture  that 
some  parts  of  the 
lake  extend  into  the 
land  and  then  widen 
out.  The  part  where 
the  water  thus  extends  into  the  land  is  called  a  lay.  Did  you  ever 
see  a  part  of  a  body  of  water  called  a  bay  ?  How  many  bays  do 
you  see  in  this  picture  of  a  lake  ? 


56  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

A  Cape.— The  points  of  land  which  extend  into  the  lake  repre- 
sent capes.  A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  extending  into  the  water. 

A  Harbor. — When  a  part  of  a  large  body  of  water  extends  into 
the  land,  as  a  bay  almost  enclosed  by  land,  ships  go  there  for  pro- 
tection from  a  storm;  and  on  the  shores  of  such  a  place  people  build 
cities,  where  the  ships  can  come  to  unload  their  goods,  and  then 
take  in  a  new  cargo,  or  load,  to  be  conveyed  to  some  other  city  or 
country. 

A  Village.  —  How  many  of  you  have  been  to  the  place  where 
the  boats  land,  on  the  river  ?  What  is  that  place  called  2 

"  The  landing."     "  The  pier."     "  The  dock." 

Yes,  that  place  has  several  names,  and  each  of  them  means  the 
same  place.  A  little  way  back  from  the  landing -place  are  many 
houses,  stores,  shops,  and  several  churches.  What  is  that  place 
called  ? 

"  A  village." 

How  many  of  you  have  seen  a  village  ?  Are  there  more  houses  in 
a  village  than  on  a  farm  ?  Why  do  people  live  in  villages  ? 

A  City. — Suppose  you  should  go  to  a  place  where  there  were 
a  great  many  streets  crossing  each  other,  and  houses  built  along 
both  sides  of  these  streets,  and  a  great  many  stores,  shops,  churches, 
markets,  etc.,  and  many  thousands  of  people  lived  in  that  place, 
would  you  call  it  a  village  ?  What  would  you  call  it  ? 

How  many  of  you  have  seen  a  city  ?  Are  the  streets  of  a  city  like 
the  streets  in  the  country  ? 

In  a  similar  manner  proceed  to  give  the  pupils  definite  ideas 
of  a  railroad,  a  canal,  a  strait,  an  isthmus,  etc.,  until  these  illus- 
trations embrace  all  forms  of  land,  and  of  water,  of  farms,  vil- 
lages, railroads,  etc.,  within  the  observation  or  possible  experience 
of  any  pupil  in  your  class. 

When  it  is  found  that  the  experience  of  one  pupil  is  more 
extended  than  that  of  the  others,  after  including  all  that  the  other 
pupils  have  observed,  proceed  to  use  the  experience  of  that  one 
pupil  to  teach  the  others. 

Show  pictures,  and  make  -drawings  on  the  blackboard  to  illus- 
trate these  lessons,  as  far  as  possible ;  and  encourage  the  pupils 
to  copy  the  sketches  and  the  descriptions  on  their  slates. 


SHAPE  AND  SIZE  OF  THE   EARTH.  57 


TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS  OF  THE  EARTH'S   SHAPE  AND 

SIZE. 

BEFORE  commencing  this  lesson,  the  teacher  should  pro- 
vide an  ample  variety  of  objects  for  illustrating  the  shape 
of  the  earth  —  such  as  peas,  marbles,  balls,  oranges,  and 
globes  of  different  sizes. 

First  Step — Shape. — Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  that  the 
pea  and  marble  are  alike  in  shape — that  these  represent  the  shape 
of  the  ball  and  the  orange.  Lead  them  to  notice,  also,  that  while 
the  ball  and  orange  have  the  same  shape,  they  represent  the  shape 
of  the  globes.  Let  them  observe,  also,  that  the  pea,  marble,  ball, 
orange,  and  globe  are  alike  in  shape  —  that  each  is  a  sphere. 
Show  a  picture  of  the  shape  of  the  earth  in  a  geography. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  that  each  of  these  spheres  differs  from 
the  others  in  size  and  in  the  materials  of  which  they  are  formed. 

How  are  the  ball  and  pea  alike  ?    How  do  they  differ  ? 

In  what  are  the  orange  and  the  globe  alike  ?    How  do  they  differ  ? 

Second  Step  —  Size. — Remind  the  pupils  that  all  the 
spherical  objects  before  them  resemble  the  globes  in  shape,  and 
that  these  globes  also  resemble  the  shape  of  the  earth,  or  globe,  on 
which  we  live.  Lead  them  to  notice  that  these  objects  are  like 
each  other  in  shape  only,  and  that  the  globes  are  like  the  earth 
in  shape  only. 

Let  them  also  notice  that  these  objects  differ  from  each  other 
in  size;  that  they  differ  from  the  earth  in  size  also;  and  that 
they  differ  from  each  other  in  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
composed ;  and  they  also  differ  in  their  materials  from  the  earth. 

This  globe  which  I  hold  in  my  hand  is  like  the  earth  in  shape 
only.  The  earth  is  vastly  larger  than  any  globe  that  could  be 
built.  You  could  walk  around  a  globe  as  large  as  could  stand  in 

3* 


58  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

this  room  in  less  than  two  minutes ;  but  you  could  not  walk  around 
the  earth,  even  if  there  was  a  good  path  all  the  way,  in  two  years. 

A  horse  usually  travels  about  five  miles  in  an  hour  when  drawing 
a  horse-car;  if  a  car  track  could  be  built  around  the  earth,  it  would 
take  more  than  six  months  to  ride  around  it  in  a  horse-car,  even  if 
the  car  should  move  on  without  stopping  night  or  clay. 

If  you  could  procure  a  kite-string  long  enough  to  reach  around 
the  earth,  it  would  be  25,000  miles  long ;  and  should  you  try  to 
wind  it  up,  it  would  make  a  ball  larger  than  the  school-house. 

Now  I  think  you  understand  that  the  earth  on  which  you  live  is 
a  very,  very  large  ball.  It  is  so  large  that  you  can  see  only  a  small 
part  of  its  surface  at  the  same  time.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  round 
because  it  is  so  large  that  you  can  see  only  a  small  portion  of  it ; 
yet  we  know  that  it  is  round,  for  many  men  have  sailed  around  it. 
They  can  go  around  in  a  ship,  somewhat  as  a  fly  can  crawl  around 
an  orange. 

Proofs  that  the  Earth  is  Round.  — 1.  People  have 
sailed  around  it. 

2.  The  body  of  a  ship  disappears  first  when  it  goes  away  on  the 
sea.     The  masts  are  seen  longer.     A  man  six  feet  tall  can  see  a  boat 
about  three  miles  distant  on  smooth  water.     If  a  man  stands  on  a 
rock  twenty-four  feet  high,  he  may  see  a  boat  when  six  miles  distant. 

3.  When  travelling  toward  the  east  the  sun  rises  earlier  each  day 
— one  hour  earlier  for  each  1000  miles  travelled. 

4.  The  earth  casts  a  circular  shadow  on  the  moon  when  the  moon 
is  eclipsed. 

5.  The  earth  is  proved  to  be  round  from  north  to  south  by  the 
changes  in  the  positions  of  the  stars  in  going  far  toward  the  north, 
or  far  toward  the  south.     At  or  near  the  equator  the  north  star 
would  be  in  the  horizon;  at  the  north  pole  it  would  be  directly 
overhead.     In  going  south  from  the  equator  the  stars  appear  to  rise 
up  higher  and  higher,  the  same  as  in  going  north  from  the  equator. 

Let  there  be  frequent  review  exercises  in  which  the  pupils  try 
to  write  some  of  the  important  facts  of  previous  lessons.  These 
exercises  should  be  informal,  not  presented  to  the  pupils  as  ex- 
aminations. Rather  let  them  be  made  competitive  by  requesting 
the  pupils  to  try  to  write  a  given  number  of  important  facts 
learned  during  a  previous,  recent  lesson ;  say  two,  three,  or  five 
facts,  as  may  be  deemed  sufficient  by  the  teacher. 


REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE.  59 


REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH'S   SURFACE  ON 
GLOBES   AND   MAPS. 

Land  and  "Water. — A  few  clays  ago  we  were  talking  about 
the  shape  of  the  earth.  I  then  told  you  that  this  globe  was  made  to 
show  you  the  shape  of  the  earth.  Now  I  wish  you  to  observe  that 
its  surface  is  not  of  the  same  color  in  all  parts ;  and  that  it  has  on  it 
something  like  pictures.  These  are  intended  to  show  you  the  shapes 
or  boundaries  of  the  land,  and  of  the  water  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  This  part,  of  a  light  bluish  color/represents  the  water;  the 
other  parts  represent  the  land.  You  see  there  is  much  more  water 
than  land  upon  the  earth. 

James  may  point  to  parts  of  this  globe  that  represent  water. 
John  may  point  to  parts  that  represent  land. 

The  large  bodies  of  water  represented  here  are  called  oceans.  The 
large  portions  of  land  are  called  continents.  These  smaller  portions 
of  land,  which  are  entirely  surrounded  by  water,,  are  called  what? 

"  Islands." 

Henry  may  point  to  something  that  represents  an  island  on  this 
globe. 

William  may  point  to  a  continent. 

Some  parts  of  the  land  are  called  valleys,  some  parts  plains,  some 
mountains,  etc.,  as  you  learned  in  former  lessons. 

The  water  is  divided  into  parts  called  oceans,  bays,  lakes,  straits, 
rivers,  etc.  You  cannot  see  anything  on  this  globe  to  represent 
the  small  lakes,  streams,  mountains,  etc.,  the  globe  is  too  small  for 
that,  so  we  must  use  large  maps  to  represent  the  smaller  parts  of 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Now  I  wish  you  to  notice  this  large  map,  with  the  two  large  cir- 
cles on  it.  This  map  represents  the  shapes  of  the  bodies  of  water, 
and  of  the  countries  of  the  world. 

On  this  left-hand  circle  you  may  see  two  large  portions  of  land 
represented,  which  are  joined  together  by  a  very  narrow  strip  of 
land.  Who  will  find  these  two  bodies  of  land,  and  the  place  where 
they  are  joined,  on  this  globe  ? 

The  two  countries  here  represented,  are  called  North  America,  and 
South  America.  We  live  in  the  one  called  North  America.  The 
strip  of  land  which  unites  these  countries  is  called  an  isthmus.  Of 
what  is  an  isthmus  made  ?  Is  it  narrow  ?  What  is  at  eacli  end  of 


60  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

an  isthmus  ?  What  is  on  each  side  of  an  isthmus  ?  Can  a  person 
walk  on  an  isthmus  ?  What  is  an  isthmus  ? 

An  isthmus  is  a  strip  of  land  that  joins  two  larger  poi'tions  of  land 
together. 

Point  to  an  isthmus  on  this  map  of  the  world.  Did  you  ever  see 
a  real  isthmus  ? 

Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  to  teach  such  forms  of  land  and 
water  as  may  be  distinguished  on  both  globe  and  maps. 

How  Locations  of  Countries  may  be  Learned. — 
When  the  pupils  have  learned  to  point  out  on  the  map  and 
globe  the  principal  forms  of  land  and  water  that  may  be  distin- 
guished on  the  globe,  proceed  with  the  location  of  the  principal 
divisions  or  countries  of  the  world,  at  the  same  time  associating 
them  with  such  people,  animals,  or  productions  found  in  them,  as 
may  be  most  familiar  to  the  children.  These  lessons  may  be 
given  somewhat  as  follows : 

Yesterday  we  found  the  countries  called  North  America,  and 
South  America,  on  the  map  and  on  the  globe.  To-day  I  wish  you 
to  find  other  countries  on  the  map,  and  on  the  globe.  On  the  left- 
hand  circle  of  this  large  map  you  may  see  represented  large  bodies 
of  land,  and  of  water.  You  will  notice  that  portions  of  the  map 
representing  land  are  of  different  colors.  Each  color  is  intended  to 
show  how  much  belongs  to  one  country.  Now  James  may  come 
and  find  on  the  globe  the  country  which  I  now  point  at  on  the 
map. 

Bight.  This  country  is  called  Africa.  It  is  the  home  of  the 
negro  race.  Most  of  the  people  living  in  Africa  are  negroes. 

William  may  now  find  the  home  of  the  negro  race  on  this  globe ; 
and  Henry  may  point  to  it  on  the  map. 

Please  to  notice  the  country  which  I  now  point  out  on  the  map. 
This  is  the  home  of  the  elephant,  and  of  the  Chinese ;  the  country  is 
called  Asia. 

Mary  may  find  this  country  on  the  globe,  and  Lucy  may  point  to 
it  on  the  map. 

Would  you  like  to  have  me  show  you  where  fire -crackers  are 
made  ?  I  will  point  to  the  place,  and  you  must  tell  me  what  coun- 
try it  is  in. 

"Asia." 

That  is  right,  but  that  part  of  Asia  where  fire  -  crackers  are 


TO  LEARN  LOCATIONS  OF  COUNTRIES.  61 

made  is  called  China.  That  is  where  the  Chinese  live ;  and  the  place 
where  our  tea  is  raised.  Now  tell  me  the  name  of  something  that 
you  have  seen  which  came  from  Asia. 

Now  look  at  the  country  which  I  point  out  on  the  map.  Is  it  as 
large  as  Asia  ?  This  country  is  called  Europe.  This  country  is  the 
home  of  the  Germans,  the  French,  the  English,  the  Irish,  the  Scotch, 
the  Italian,  the  Swede,  the  Dutch,  etc. 

Who  will  find  Europe  on  the  globe  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  any  one  who  has  lived  in  Europe  ? 

George  says  he  can  find  another  large  portion  of  land  represented 
on  the  map;  let  him  try  it.  "Well  done.  That  country  is  called 
Australia.  It  is  the  home  of  the  kangaroo.  Now  George  may  find 
the  home  of  the  kangaroo  on  this  globe. 

I  am  now  going  to  point  to  the  representation  of  the  country 
where  the  camel,  and  the  giraffe,  and  the  hippopotamus,  and  the 
gorilla,  and  the  ostrich  are  found,  and  you  must  tell  the  name  of  the 
country. 

"Africa." 

Very  good.  Lions  are  found  in  Africa ;  and  the  zebra  also.  Egypt 
is  in  Africa ;  this  is  the  place  where  the  pyramids  were  built.  The 
obelisk  in  the  New  York  Central  Park  was  brought  from  Egypt. 

I  will  point  to  the  country  where  pepper,  cloves,  cinnamon,  and 
nutmegs  grow,  and  you  may  tell  its  name. 

"Asia." 

The  country  that  I  am  now  pointing  at  is  the  home  of  the  llama, 
and  the  place  where  cocoa-nuts,  Brazil-nuts,  and  india-rubber  are 
found.  What  is  the  name  of  this  country  ? 

"  South  America." 

The  largest  river  in  the  world  is  in  South  America.  This  is  the 
Amazon  river. 

Who  can  find  on  the  map  the  country  where  we  live  ?  What  is 
the  name  of  it  ? 

This  is  the  home  of  the  Indian,  and  the  hison,  and  the  hear,  and 
the  turkey;  and  far  to  the  north  the  white  bear  lives.  The  country 
there  is  very  cold  all  the  time.  No  large  trees  grow  there. 

The  weather  is  very  cold  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  of 
Asia ;  and  it  is  also  very  cold  far  to  the  south  of  Africa,  and  of 
South  America. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  South  America,  of  Africa,  of  Australia, 
and  in  the  southern  parts  of  Asia,  and  of  North  America,  the  weather 
is  very  warm  all  of  the  time. 

In  the  warm  countries  there  are  many  large  trees,  and  beautiful 
flowers,  and  birds  with  fine  plumage. 


62  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Review  these  lessons  on  the  locations  of  countries  by  calling 
upon  pupils  to  point  them  out  on  the  map,  and  on  the  globe. 
Let  two  pupils  point  out  the  same  country,  one  on  the  map,  the 
other  on  the  globe ;  and  require  each  to  name  something  that 
can  be  found  in  the  country. 

Let  pupils  write  on  their  slates  all  they  can  remember  about 
a  country,  after  the  lesson  has  been  given  and  reviewed. 


MAP  DRAWING  AS   A  MEA'NS   OF  TEACHING  GEOG- 
RAPHY. 

THE  practice  of  training  pupils  to  sketch  an  outline  of 
the  boundaries  of  countries,  states,  etc.,  and  to  represent 
the  chief  features  of  each,  as  a  part  of  the  lesson  on  that 
country,  is  too  much  neglected  in  teaching  geography. 
And  this  neglect  leads  to  the  leaving  out  of  the  methods 
of  teaching  this  subject  one  of  the  most  valuable  means 
of  success  in  learning  it.  Teaching  a  pupil  to  represent 
his  knowledge  by  something  done  with  the  hand,  is  of 
greater  importance  than  teaching  him  to  remember  some- 
thing to  say  about  it.  He  may  learn  to  repeat  the  words 
without  understanding  what  they  are  about ;  but  he  can- 
not learn  to  represent  the  form  of  that  which  he  does  not 
know. 

A  venerable  teacher  from  whom  I  received  many  valu- 
able lessons,  used  to  say,  "  You  know  it  when  you  can 
show  it."  This  saying  is  specially  appropriate  to  the 
student  of  geography.  He  knows  the  form  and  features 
of  a  country  when  he  can  show  them  by  drawing. 

The  common  question-and-answer  method  of  recitations 
in  geography  js  painfully  familiar  in  too  many  schools. 
The  pupils  submit  to  it  as  one  of  the  tiresome  ordeals  in- 
cident to  school  life.  Compare  a  class  of  pupils  taught 


MAP  DRAWING.  63 

by  this  routine  method,  with  one  taught  to  sketch  each 
feature  of  the  country,  the  boundaries,  locations  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  lakes,  towns,  and  chief  productions,  and  man- 
ufactures. Observe  the  listlessness  of  one  class  and  the 
thoughtful  attention  and  active  interest  exhibited  by  the 
other,  and  there  can  no  longer  remain  a  doubt  as  to  which 
is  the  better  way  of  teaching. 

Accurately  drawn  maps  are  not  necessary  for  this  plan 
of  teaching.  They  must  possess  sufficient  resemblance  to 
the  true  form  for  any  pupil  to  recognize  readily  the  coun- 
try represented.  With  this  degree,  of  accuracy  attained, 
rapidity  of  execution  becomes  chief  in  importance,  when 
this  sketching  process  is  employed  as  a  method  of  recita- 
tion, or  review  of  lessons. 

If  you  have  neglected  to  use  map  sketching  in  teaching 
geography  because  you  do  not  know  how  to  draw  a  map 
accurately,  do  not  allow  this  excuse  to  still  prevent  you 
from  beginning.  A  little  skill  and  patience  on  your  part 
will  enable  you  to  lead  your  pupils  to  do  the  needed  work 
in  drawing ;  while  your  inability  to  draw  well  will  pre- 
vent you  from  doing  that  which  ought  to  be  done  by  the 
pupils.  Your  effort  should  be  to  teach  them  to  do  for 
themselves.  If  you  knew  that  you  could  draw  maps  well, 
you  might  try  to  do  too  much  of  the  work,  and  thus 
prevent  your  pupils  from  attaining  the  best  results  from 
these  lessons.  By  trying  to  teach  map  drawing,  you  will 
learn  as  well  as  your  pupils. 

How  to  Commence  Map  Drawing.— First  read  care- 
fully what  is  said  in  the  lessons  on  "  Place  and  Direction  "  about 
representing  the  position  of  things  on  the  table  and  in  the  class- 
room ;  and  especially  the  lessons  on  Boundaries  a,nd  Maps.  Then 
give  your  pupils  similar  exercises,  and  when  you  find  that  your 
pupils  can  draw  maps  of  the  school -room,  of  the  play-ground, 
and  give  the  relative  location  of  the  streets  and  buildings  in  the 


64:  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

vicinity,  they  are  ready  to  proceed  with  the  drawing  of  maps  to 
represent  states,  etc. 

Suspend  before  the  class  a  map  of  the  United  States,  or  of  a 
group  of  states  containing  the  one  selected  to  be  drawn.  If  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania  be  chosen,  proceed  somewhat  as  follows : 
Bequest  the  pupils  to  observe  the  general  shape  of  the  state,  and 
to  notice  which  way  it  is  longer ;  whether  the  boundary  lines  are 
straight,  or  crooked ;  which  sides  are  straight,  and  which  are  ir- 
regular ;  also  notice  about  how  many  times  the  width  of  the  state 
could  be  contained  in  its  length. 

Let  each  pupil  take  a  slate  and  draw  a  line  nearly  across  it,  about 
two  inches  below  the  top,  to  represent  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  state.  Then  let  each  pupil  draw  a  line  nearly  across  his  slate, 
far  enough  below  the  first  line  to  represent  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  state.  Next  let  each  draw  a  line  on  the  left  side  of  the  slate, 
meeting  the  other  two  lines,  to  represent  the  western  boundary.  In 
doing  this  lead  them  to  represent  the  north-western  corner  of  the 
state  properly.  Now  call  their  attention  to  the  irregular  form  of  the 
eastern  boundary.  Request  the  pupils  to  make  two  dots  to  repre- 
sent the  two  most  easterly  points  in  this  boundary,  and  three  dots 
to  locate  the  most  westerly  points  in  it.  Then  direct  the  pupils 
to  draw  a  line  so  as  to  pass  through  all  five  of  these  dots. 

The  slates  may  be  compared,  and  the  one  best  drawn  selected. 
Bequest  the  pupil  who  drew  that  to  represent  the  boundaries  of  the 
state  on  the  blackboard.  Then  select  some  of  the  slates  containing 
poorly  drawn  maps,  and  let  the  pupils  compare  them  with  the  out- 
line on  the  blackboard,  and  point  out  the  defects. 

This  exercise  will  be  quite  enough  for  the  first  lesson ;  and  the 
class  will  have  learned  enough  of  the  shape  of  the  state  to  be  able 
to  represent  it  much  better,  and  in  one -half  the  time,  at  the  next 
lesson. 

For  the  second  lesson  commence  with  the  boundaries  again,  and 
request  one  pupil  to  draw  them  on  the  blackboard,  while  the  others 
use  their  slates.  Having  finished  the  boundaries,  request  the  pupils 
to  tell  you  what  was  done  after  drawing  the  boundaries  of  the 
school-room. 

"The  position  of  the  objects  in  the  room  were  represented  next." 

Very  well.  Now  we  must  represent  the  position  of  some  objects 
in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  within  its  boundaries.  If  you  could 
look  down  upon  the  whole  state,  as  you  can  look  on  the  floor  of  this 
room,  you  would  see  chains  of  mountains  in  some  parts,  rivers  in 


MAP  DRAWING.  65 

others,  coal  mines,  and  iron  mines,  and  oil  wells,  and  cities,  and  rail- 
roads, in  other  places.  You  may  represent  the  chains  of  mbuutains 
first;  but,  before  doing  this,  look  on  the  map  and  notice  where  the 
mountains  are,  and  in  which  directions  they  extend. 

The  mountains  that  extend  from  about  the  middle  of  the  eastern 
boundary  toward  the  south-west,  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  south- 
ern boundary,  are  those  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  Locate  these  first. 

Next  observe  the  position  of  the  Alleghany  range,  and  locate 
this.  Then  represent  the  other  prominent  mountains  of  the  state. 

Now  let  the  class  notice  where  the  largest  rivers  are,  and  which 
way  they  flow,  and  then  represent  the  Susquehanna,  its  east  and 
west  branches,  the  Juniata,  the  Alleghany,  Monongahela,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Ohio.  Next  represent  the  part  of  Lake  Erie  that 
touches  the  state  on  the  north-west. 

Then  select  six  of  the  principal  cities,  and  locate  each  on  the 
map.  Philadelphia,  Harrisburg,  Pittsburgh,  Reading,  Scranton,  and 
Williamsport. 

In  the  north-western  part  indicate  the  region  of  oil  wells;  east 
of  the  centre  of  the  state,  represent  the  region  of  coal  mines ;  and 
indicate  the  iron  mines  in  the  south-eastern  and  south-western 
portions. 

Tell  the  pupils  to  remember  that  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  fur- 
nishes iron  for  our  stoves,  coal  for  our  fires,  and  oil  for  our  lamps. 

They  may  next  notice  through  what  cities  the  principal  railroads 
pass,  and  represent  these  by  dotted  lines. 

The  pupils  may  be  requested  to  draw  the  same  state  again  from 
observing  the  map;  and  then  let  them  draw  it  from  memory. 
Observing  the  following  order : 


1.  Boundaries. 

2.  Mountains. 

3.  Rivers. 


4.  Cities. 

5.  Productions. 

6.  Railroads,  etc. 


Select  another  state  with  regular  boundary  lines,  as  Kansas, 
Colorado,  Connecticut,  Indiana,  Iowa,  and  let  the  pupils  proceed 
in  a  manner  similar  to  the  plan  used  for  Pennsylvania. 

Drawing  from  Dictation. — When  the  pupils  have  learned  to 
draw  maps  of  several  states,  request  them  to  draw  from  dictation. 
Teacher.  Draw  a  map  of  Connecticut,  length  of  northern  boun- 
dary about  four  inches.  Draw  northern  boundary,  eastern  boun- 
dary, western  boundary,  southern  boundary,  giving  an  outline  of 
Long  Island  Sound.  Represent  the  Connecticut  River,  the  Hou- 


66  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

satonic  River,  the  Thames.    Locate  Hartford,  New  Haven,  Bridge- 
port, Norwich,  Waterbury,  arid  two  principal  railroads. 

When  the  pupils  are  able  to  thus  represent  a  state  readily  from 
dictation,  let  them  try  to  draw  a  state  in  five  minutes ;  then  in 
four  minutes ;  then  to  see  how  much  they  can  draw  in  three  min- 
utes. This  exercise  will  lead  to  a  great  saving  of  time  in  the 
recitations  of  geography,  and  secure  a  permanent  knowledge  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  several  states. 

Do  not  allow  your  pupils  to  waste  time  in  tracing 
maps.  Train  them  first  to  observe  the  general  shape, 
then  the  relative  size  of  its  parts,  and  form  of  boundary 
lines,  then  to  represent  what  they  notice,  with  pencil  or 
chalk. 

An  excellent  review  exercise  may  be  had  by  requesting 
pupils  to  draw  boundaries  of  a  state ;  to  write  names  of 
the  states  which  touch  it  on  the  north,  on  the  east,  on 
the  south,  on  the  west ;  to  locate  its  capital ;  three  of  its 
principal  towns.  This  work  should  be  performed  rapidly. 

It  will  be  found  valuable  in  this  connection  to  drill 
the  pupils  in  locating  chief  commercial  cities,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  represent  the  general  direction  and  relative  dis- 
tance of  one  from  the  other,  as  New  York,  Boston,  Phil- 
adelphia, Buffalo,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  San 
Francisco;  or  Cincinnati,  Columbus,  Cleveland,  Dayton, 
Toledo  ;  or  New  York,  Albany,  Syracuse,  Eochester,  Buf- 
falo ;  or  Chicago,  Detroit,  Milwaukee. 

Map  drawing  may  be  extended  to  the  continents,  and 
to  all  the  principal  countries.  Valuable  suggestions  to 
aid  in  this  work  may  be  found  in  the  principal  text-books 
on  geography. 


IDEAS  OF  WEIGHT.  CT 


WEIGHT. 

"THINGS  before  words,"  should  be  an  ever-present 
motto  with  the  primary  teacher.  The  remembrance  of 
this  is  of  especial  importance  in  developing  ideas  of 
weighty  knowledge  of  which  can  be  obtained  only  from 
objects,  and  through  the  appropriate  sense.  Lifting  must 
teach  the  child  differences  in  the  weight  of  things.  No 
idea  of  this  property  of  objects  can  be  communicated  to 
the  mind  of  the  child  by  \vords  alone.  The  pupil  must 
teach  himself  this  subject  by  his  own  experiences,  or 
forever  remain  in  ignorance  of  it. 

What,  then,  is  the  teacher's  function  with  this  subject 
of  instruction  ?  It  is  to  provide  suitable  materials,  and 
the  opportunity  whereby  the  child  can  get  the  necessary 
experience  with  things  that  have  weight ;  and  then  to 
guide  the  pupil  in  the  use  of  the  materials  so  that  he 
may  secure  the  best  results  in  the  least  time.  The  teacher 
must  instruct  the  child  by  directing  him  how  to  use  the 
objects  provided  in  teaching  himself.  Here,  emphatically, 
that  which  the  child  does,  teaches  him. 

For  suitable  materials  to  develop  ideas  of  weight,  pro- 
vide balls  and  cubes  of  the  same  size  but  of  different  ma- 
terials, as  cork,  wood,  yarn,  rubber,  glass,  iron,  lead  ;  also 
cubes  and  balls  made  of  the  same  materials,  but  of  differ- 
ent sizes ;  also  large  objects  that  are  light,  and  small  ob- 
jects that  are  heavy  ;  small  bags  of  feathers,  wool,  cotton, 
bran,  beans,  shot ;  four  tin  boxes  of  the  same  size,  contain- 
ing respectively  one  ounce,  two  ounces,  four  ounces,  and 


68  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

eight  ounces  of  shot;  two  equal  phials,  one  containing 
quicksilver,  the  other  water ;  also  four  one-ounce  weights, 
two  two-ounce  weights,  twQ  four-ounce  weights,  two  eight- 
ounce  weights,  one  pound  weight,  and  a  pair  of  common 
counter  scales. 

The  following  steps  are  intended  to  suggest  the  order  of 
proceeding,  and  the  general  plan  of  instruction  appropriate  to 
this  subject. 

First  Step. — The  first  ideas  of  weight  must  be  gained  by  ob- 
serving differences  in  the  weight  of  objects. 

Second  Step. — Next  in  the  order  of  progress  comes  the  com- 
parison of  iveights  to  distinguish  those  that  are  similar. 

Third  Step. — Pupils  to  learn  by  lifting  and  weighing  to  dis- 
tinguish given  weights. 


EXERCISES   TO  DEVELOP  IDEAS   OF  WEIGHT. 

FIRST  STEP,  FOR  OBSERVING  DIFFERENCES. 

First  Exercise.  —  Let  the  pupils  lift  many  objects  without 
regard  to  size  or  shape,  and  notice  that  they  differ  in  weight. 

Second  Exercise.  — Let  the  pupils  lift  objects  of  the  same 
material  which  differ  much  in  size  and  in  weight. 

Third  Exercise.  — Let  them  lift  objects  of  equal  size  and 
same  shape,  but  of  different  materials,  and  observe  that  they  differ 
in  weight. 

Fourth  Exercise.  —  Let  them  lift  objects,  as  tin  boxes,  of 
same  shape  and  size,  but  differing  in  weight,  and  thus  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish differences. 


EXERCISES  IN  WEIGHT.  69 


SECOND  STEP,  FOR  COMPARING  WEIGHT. 

First  Exercise. — Let  the  pupils  lift  objects,  without  regard 
to  size  or  shape,  and  find  two  or  more  of  the  same  weight. 

Second  Exercise.— Let  them  lift  large  and  small  objects, 
and  find  two  that  differ  in  size  which  are  alike  in  weight. 

Third  Exercise.  —  Let  the  pupils  hold  one  object,  and  lift 
others  to  find  those  that  are  lighter  and  those  that  are  heavier  than 
the  one  held. 

Fourth  Exercise. — Let  the  pupils  take  a  basin  of  water,  and 
find  what  objects  will  sink  in  it  and  what  objects  will  swim.  Teach 
them  that  objects  which  are  heavier  than  water  sink,  while  those 
which  are  lighter  than  water  swim. 


THIRD   STEP,  FOR  WEIGHING. 

First  Exercise. — Let  the  pupils  take  a  given  weight,  as  four 
ounces,  or  half  a  pound,  or  one  pound,  and  compare  the  weight  of 
other  objects  with  it  by  lifting;  then  let  them  try  these  on  the 
scales  to  see  if  the  weight  of  each  is  the  same. 

Second  Exercise.  — Let  them  lift  an  object,  judge  of  its 
weight,  then  weigh  it  to  test  the  correctness  of  the  judgment. 

Third  Exercise.— Let  the  pupils  take  a  quarter-pound  weight, 
place  it  on  the  scale,  and  then  find  how  many  ounce  weights  will 
equal  it  in  weight.  Let  them  take  a  half-pound  weight,  and  in  the 
same  way  find  how  many  ounce  weights  will  equal  it.  Proceed  in 
the  same  manner  to  find  how  many  ounces  equal  a  pound  weight. 

Several  lessons  should  be  given  under  each  of  the  preceding 
exercises,  which  will  supply  the  pupils  with  enough  personal  ex- 
perience to  develop  clearly  the  special  ideas  intended  to  be  taught 
by  each  of  the  three  steps.  The  pupils  should  also  be  encouraged 
to  make  similar  experiments  at  home,  and  then  tell  in  school  what 
they  have  learned  concerning  the  given  step.  At  the  end  of  the 
exercises  for  the  Third  Step,  the  pupils  will  be  prepared  to  learn 
readily  and  understandingly  the  tables  of  weights. 


70  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  STANDARD  WEIGHTS. 

Teacher.  If  you  should  go  to  the  grocery  store  to  buy  coffee,  tea, 
sugar,  and  flour,  what  would  you  say,  in  telling  how  much  you 
wanted  to  get  ? 

Pupil.  I  would  tell  the  clerk  to  give  me  a  pound  of  coffee,  and 
half  a  pound  of  tea.  Then,  if  I  wanted  some  flour  and  sugar,  I 
would  tell  him  to  give  me  ten  pounds  of  flour  and  seven  pounds  of 
sugar. 

T.  "What  would  the  clerk  do  to  find  how  much  he  must  give  you 
of  each  article  ? 

P.  He  would  weigh  them  on  the  scales.  He  has  half-pound 
weights,  pound  weights,  two -pound  weights,  five  -pound  weights, 
and  other  large  weights,  and  he  could  use  these  to  find  how  much 
to  give  me  of  each  article. 

T.  Suppose  the  grocer  had  no  scales  and  no  weights,  and  did  not 
know  how  to  weigh,  how  could  he  give  you  what  you  asked  for  ? 

P.  He  could  not  do  it.  He  must  have  scales  and  weights,  and 
know  how  to  weigh,  or  he  could  not  keep  a  grocery  store. 

T.  Now  you  may  name  all  the  articles  that  you  can  think  of  that 
the  grocer  sells  by  weight. 


FACTS  ABOUT  WEIGHT,  FOR  THE   TEACHER. 

THE  pupils  having  learned  by  experience  with  the  scale  and 
weights  that  16  ounces  make  one  pound,  8  ounces,  one  half 
pound,  4  ounces  one  quarter  of  a  pound,  the  following  table  may 
be  written  on  the  blackboard  and  copied  by  the  pupils  on  their 
slates,  then  memorized,  so  that  they  can  repeat  it  in  order,  or 
answer  any  question  as  to  how  much  of  one  weight  it  takes  to 
make  another  weight. 

COMMON,  OR  AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

16  ounces  make  one  pound.  Sign :  oz.  for  ounce. 

8       "          "      one  half  pound.  "       Ib.  for  pound. 

4       "          "      one  quarter  of  a  pound. 

100  pounds  make  one  hundred-weight.  "      cwt.  for  100  pounds. 

20  hundred-weight  make  one  ton. 
2000  pounds  make  one  ton. 


FACTS  ABOUT  WEIGHT.  71 

For  pupils  who  are  advanced  beyond  the  simple  rules  of  arith- 
metic, the  following  tables  are  given  : 

MISCELLANEOUS  COMMON  WEIGHT. 

7000  grains  make  one  pound.  Sign :  Ib.  for  pound. 

60  pounds  one  bushel  of  wheat.  "      bush,  for  bushel. 


barrel  of  flour.  bbl.  for  barrel. 

"      "  beef  or  pork. 

"      "  salt, 
old  ton,  or  gross  weight  ton. 


196 

200       " 
280       " 
2240       " 
100       "  quintal  of  fish. 

144       "        avoirdupois  equal  175  Ibs.  troy. 
192  ounces  "  "      175  02.     " 

1  ounce  "  "      437ij  grains.^ 

1      "  troy  "      480~        " 

1  grain  "  "          1  grain  avoirdupois. 

1  pound  "  "    5760  grains. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

Explain  the  use  of  this  weight.  Compare"  the  grains,  ounces, 
and  pounds  with  those  of  common  weight.  Let  the  pupils  see 
that  the  common  pound  is  heavier  than  the  troy  pound,  by  1240 
grains ;  and  that  the  ounce  of  troy  is  heavier  than  the  ounce  in 
common,  or  avoirdupois  weight,  by  42j  grains. 

24  grains  make  one  pennyweight.         Sign  :  dwt.  for  pennyweight. 
20  pennyweights  make  one  ounce.  "      oz.  for  ounce. 

12  ounces  make  one  pound.  •     "       Ib.  for  pound. 

5760  grains       "        "         " 
480      "  "       "   ounce. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 

Explain  its  use  for  mixing  medicines.  Lead  the  pupils  to 
notice  that  the  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  as  in  troy 
weight;  that  the  only  difference  between  the  troy  and  apothe- 
caries' weight  consists  in  the  subdivisions  of  the  ounce  into 
drachms  and  scruples. 

20  grains  make  one  scruple.  Sign :  9. 

3  scruples    "       "    drachm.  "       3. 

8  drachms  "       "    ounce.  "       f. 

12  ounces      "       "    pound. 
480  grains       "       "    ounce. 
5760     "  "       "    pound. 


72  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

DIAMOND  WEIGHT. 

In  tins  weight  the  grain  is  equal  to  %  of  a  troy  grain ;  and  the 
diamond  grain  is  divided  into  sixteen  parts : 

16  parts  make  one  grain. 
4  grains  "  "  carat. 
1  carat  equals  3J-  grains  troy. 

Some  idea  of  the  rate  at  which  the  value  of  diamonds  in- 
creases as  the  weight  increases  may  be  understood  from  the  fol- 
lowing statement :  If  a  rough  diamond  weighing  one  carat  is 
worth  $9,  a  cut  diamond  weighing  one  carat  is  worth  $36 ;  and 
a  cut  diamond  weighing  two  carats  would  be  worth  four  times 
$36,  or  $144;  one  weighing  three  carats,  nine  times  $36,  or  $324. 
To  get  an  idea  of  the  relative  value  of  diamonds  of  equal  purity 
and  different  weight,  multiply  the  price  of  one  carat  by  the  square 
of  the  weight  in  carats. 

An  Assay  Carat  means  one-twenty-fourth  part ;  20-carat  gold 
contains  20  parts  of  pure  gold  and  4  parts  alloy;  18-carat  gold 
contains  18  parts  of  pure  gold  and  6  parts  alloy. 


WEIGHT  OF  OBJECTS. 

THE  teacher  may  give  interesting  exercises  by  showing  the 
pupils  what  objects  are  lighter  than  water,  which  are  heavier  than 
water,  and  how  many  times  heavier;  and  thus  develop  more  fully 
ideas  as  to  heavy  and  light  objects. 

Fill  a  glass  jar  with  water,  and  place  it  on  a  table  before  the 
class.  Put  in  the  water  a  cork  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  cube,  also 
pieces  of  poplar,  pine,  maple,  and  oak  wood  cut  in  the  same  shape 
and  size.  Let  the  pupils  notice  which  sink  lowest  in  the  water. 
Try  a  piece  of  ice  in  the  same  way,  and  they  will  see  that  about 
YTJ  of  it  will  remain  above  the  water.  Also,  place  in  the  water 
objects  that  are  heavier  than  water,  and  let  the  pupils  observe 
that  some  sink  slowly,  that  others  sink  quickly. 


WEIGHT  OF  OBJECTS.  73 

The  following  tables  will  furnish  facts  that  will  aid  the  teacher 
in  making  experiments,  which  will  lead  the  pupils  to  gain  much 
useful  information  about  the  weight  of  objects : 

COMPARATIVE  WEIGHTS. 
Steam  is  lighter  than  gas. 


Gas 

"    air. 

Air 

"    cork. 

Cork              " 

"    poplar  wood. 

Poplar           " 

"    pine  wood. 

Pine              " 

"    ice. 

Ice                " 

"    fresh  water. 

Fresh  water  " 

"    salt  water. 

Oil                " 

"    water. 

LIGHTER  THAN   WATER. 


Steam  is 

about 

raVo 

as  heavy  as 

water. 

Air 

<t 

FO(F 

u 

M 

Cork 

II 

* 

u 

(( 

Poplar 

" 

f 

u 

U 

Pine 

u 

1 

M 

U 

Maple 

u 

f 

M 

M 

Oak 

" 

T5 

U 

u 

Oil 

II 

ft 

u 

u 

Ice 

M 

» 

" 

u 

HEAVIER  THAN   WATER. 

Milk  is  about  1^  times  as  heavy  as  water. 

Coal  "      1£  " 

Brick  "      2  "  "  " 

Slate  "      2|  "  "  " 

Glass  "      3  "  "  "' 

Diamond  "      3^  "  "  " 

Garnet  "     4£  "  «  « 

Cast  iron  "      7^  "  "  " 

Copper  "      8|  "  "  " 

Silver  "    10J  "  «  « 

Lead  "    llf  "  "  " 

Mercury  "    13|  "  "  " 

Gold  "    19  L  "  "  « 

Platinum  "21  "  «  « 


MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 


METRIC  MEASURE. 

THIS  system  is  now  extensively  used  in  eleven  countries  of  the 
world,  and  is  being  introduced  into  the  United  States.  Could 
all  the  instruction  in  school  pertaining  to  the  tables  of  weights 
and  measures  be  confined  to  the  metric  system,  it  would  save 
about  one  year  in  the  school  life  of  each  pupil  who  completes 
an  ordinary  grammar-school  course;  and  could  the  power  of 
habit  produced  by  long  use  of  the  present  tables  be  overcome ; 
and  could  the  people  be  induced  to  make  use  of  these  tables  in 
business  transactions,  the  saving  of  time  in  business  would  be 
greater  than  the  saving  of  time  in  school.  Although  so  great  a 
saving  of  time  would  be  effected  by  making  all  our  tables  of 
weights  and  measures  as  simple  as  that  of  our  table  of  money, 
which  is  part  of  a  metric  system,  it  is  not  very  probable  that  this 
system  will  come  into  general  use  in  this  country  during  the 
present  century. 

Its  simplicity  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  only  three  terms  as  the  key,  or  units  in  all  the  measures 
and  weights  by  this  system,  for 

All  lengths  are  measured  in  metres, 
capacities  "         "   litres. 


'    capacities 
"    weights  "   grams. 


With  the  metre  every  possible  dimension — length,  surface,  so- 
lidity— can  be  measured;  with  the  litre,  every  possible  capacity; 
and  with  the  gram,  every  possible  weight. 

Parts  of  each  of  these  three  unit  measures  are  represented 
by  the  same  terms  —  a  tenth,  by  deci ;  a  hundredth,  by  centi ;  a 
thousandth,  by  milli. 

For  representing  lengths,  capacities,  or  weights  greater  than 
the  unit,  each  increases  by  a  decimal  ratio,  as  in  our  money. 
Ten  units,  a  hundred  units,  and  a  thousand  units,  of  either  meas- 
ure or  weight*  would  be  represented  by  the  same  terms,  thus : 


METBIC  NUMBERS.  75 

deka  signifies  ten  of  the  unit;  hekto,  a  hundred  of  the  unit ;  kilo, 
a  thousand  of  the  unit ;  and  myria,  ten  thousand  of  the  unit ; 
hence  ten  metres  would  be  called  a  dekametre ;  ten  litres,  a.  deka- 
litre; ten  grams,  a  dekagram  ;  and  a  hundred  metres  would  be  a 
hektometre ;  a  thousand  litres  would  be  a  kilometre  ;  ten  thousand 
grams  would  be  a  myriagram. 

In  the  same  manner  a  tenth  of  a  metre  would  be  a  decimetre ; 
a  hundredth  of  a  litre  would  be  a  centilitre ;  a  thousandth  of  a 
gram  would  be  a  milligram. 

These  terms  may  be  abbreviated  in  use  to  decim,  centim,  mil- 
lim  ;  or  dekam,  hektom,  kilom,  myriam. 

COMPLETE  METRIC  TABLES. 

Dollar  is  a  measure  of  values.         I      Litre  is  a  measure  of  capacities. 
Metre    "  "        "         "  lengths.  Gram     "        "        "  weights. 


Deci  means  tenth. 
Centi     "      hundredth. 
"      thousandth. 


Deka  means  ten. 
Hekto     "      hundred. 
Kilo       "      thousand. 
Myria  means  ten  thousand. 

How  to  Head  Metric  Numbers.— When  we  write  9 
eagles,  5  dollars,  7  dimes,  5  cents ;  we  read  it,  95  dollars  75  cents. 

When  we  write  7  kilom,  2  hektom,  8  dekam,  6  metres,  8  decim,  5  cen- 
tim;  we  read  it,  7  thousc'ind  2  hundred,  88  metres  and  35  hundredths. 

When  we  write  8  myriagrams,  5  kilograms,  3  hektograms,  C  deka- 
grams, 4  grams,  5  decigrams;  we  read  it,  85  thousand  3  hundred  and 
64  grams,  and  5  tenths. 

For  addition  or  subtraction,  write  the  figures  the  same  as  in 
United  States  money. 

$386  25  m.386  25  #.386  25 

27  10  27  10  27  20 

148  75  148  75  148  75 

54  30  54  30  54  30 

$616  50  m.616  50  #.616  50 

These  answers  may  be  read  as  follows:  six  hundred  sixteen  dollars 
and  fifty  cents;  six  hundred  sixteen  metres  and  fifty  hundredths; 
six  hundred  sixteen  grams  and  fifty  hundredths. 

Subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  in  the  metric  system 
would  be  performed  the  same  as  in  United  States  money. 

The  abbreviations  are  simple,  m.,  L,  g.,  for  metre,  litre,  gram;  d.,  c., 


76  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

for  deci,  centi;  d.,  h.,  &.,  T».,  for  deka,  hekto,  kilo,  myria;  dm.  for  deci- 
metre; Dm.  for  dekametre. 

Values  Of  Metric  Quantities.— A  metre  is  one  ten-mill- 
ionth of  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  or  nearly  40 
inches. 

A  litre  is  a  cubic  tenth  metre  (decimetre),  and  is  about  equal  to 
our  quart. 

A  gram  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  hundredth  metre  (centimetre),  of 
water ;  and  is  about  -fa  of  an  ounce. 

Four  steps  equal  about  three  metres. 

The  width  of  the  hand  is  a  decimetre ;  and  the  width  of  a  finger 
two  centimetres. 

Our  nickel  Jive -cent  coin  weighs  Jive  grams;  its  diameter  is  two 
centimetres. 

Our  three-dollar  gold  coin  weighs  Jive  grams;  and  two  silver  dimes 
weigh  nearly  five  grams. 

Our  gold  dollar  equals  more  than  Jive  francs  of  the  French  money, 
or  5.1826  francs. 

In  the  use  of  the  metric  system,  carpets  would  be  measured  by 
metres ;  long  distances  by  kilometres ;  short  lengths  by  decimetres,  as 
lengths  from  four  inches  to  the  length  of  the  metre ;  and  lengths 
less  than  four  inches  by  centimetres,  or  millimetres. 

Measure  liquids,  small  fruits,  etc.,  by  litres;  fruits  and  vegetables 
in  quantities  larger  than  our  peck  by  dekalitres,  or  hectolitres;  wines 
and  other  liquids  in  large  quantities  like  our  barrel,  in  hectolitres. 

Weigh  medicines  and  small  articles  by  grams;  sugar,  flour,  coal, 
hay,  by  kilograms.  A.  thousand  kilograms  is  about  one  ton. 

Measure  surfaces  by  square  metres,  square  centimetres,  etc.  Meas- 
ure solids,  as  wood,  etc.,  by  cubic  metres,  cubic  centimetres,  etc. 


METHODS  FOR  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  IN  FORM.    77 


FOEM. 

ADDITIONAL  METHODS  FOR  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 

TEACHERS  learn  by  experience  that  success  in  training 
pupils  to  understand  a  subject  depends  very  much  upon 
ability  to  present  the  lessons  in  different  ways ;  and  upon 
furnishing  something  for  the  pupils  to  do  by  way  of 
showing  that  they  understand  each  fact  stated,  and  notice 
each  step  taken.  Those  who  teach  large  classes  especially 
need  to  be  familiar  with  a  great  variety  of  methods  for 
bringing  the  same  subjects  before  their  pupils,  to  keep  up 
the  interest  of  each  until  all  understand  the  lesson. 

For  the  purpose  of  adding  to  the  variety  of  methods  of 
teaching  Form,  as  given  in  the  Primary  Object  Lessons, 
the  following  suggestions  are  presented.  These  methods 
are  not  intended  as  substitutes  for  those  in  that  book,  but 
as  additions  thereto ;  and  while  intended  partly  as  ways 
for  reviewing  those  lessons,  their  chief  purpose  is  to  fur- 
nish a  greater  variety  in  the  modes  of  teaching  Form.  A 
leading  idea  pervading  these  methods  is  that  each  pupil 
in  a  large  class  shall  be  constantly  supplied,  during  the 
entire  exercise,  with  something  to  do. 

Lines. — Having  given  the  pupils  ideas  about  kinds  and  po- 
sitions of  lines,  place  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil  two  small  splint- 
like  sticks  of  equal  length — such  as  are  used  for  lighting  lamps. 

1.  If  the  class  is  composed  of  quite  young  pupils,  let  their 
first  exercise  be  the  holding  of  splints  in  imitation  of  the  teacher, 
as  she  represents  the  position  and  gives  its  name,  somewhat  as  f ol- 


78  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

lows,  viz. :  "  vertical  position  ;"  "  horizontal  position  ;"  "  oblique 
position;"  "  perpendicular  position ;"  "  parallel  position." 

2.  As  the  second  step  the  teacher  may  draw  lines  on  the  black- 
board representing  each  of  the  positions  illustrated  before,  and 
request  the  pupils  to  name  it  when  drawn,  and  represent  it  with 
the  splints. 

3.  For  a  third  step  the  teacher  may  name  the  positions  with- 
out representing  them  by  lines,  and  require  the  pupils  to  represent 
each  with  splints,  as  the  name  is  given. 

Angles.  —  Having  given  one  or  two  lessons  on  angles,  as 
described  in  the  Primary  Object  Lessons,  distribute  the  splints, 
giving  two  to  each  pupil.  Let  all  the  pupils  imitate  the  teacher 
as  she  represents  each  angle  with  splints,  and  names  it. 

Next  draw  each  angle  on  the  blackboard,  and  request  the  pupils 
to  name  them,  as  drawn ;  also  represent  them  with  the  splints, 
held  by  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  at  the  angle. 

For  a  change  in  the  exercise  the  teacher  may  name  each  angle, 
and  all  the  pupils  represent  it  with  splints  or  with  their  fingers. 

Plane  Forms. — When  the  pupils  have  had  lessons  on  the 
square  and  oUong,  provide  them  with  each  shape  cut  from  strong- 
paper — manilla  paper  is  best  for  this  purpose. 

First. — The  teacher  may  hold  up  one  of  these  forms,  and  re- 
quest ail  the  pupils  to  hold  up  a  like  shape  and  to  give  its  name. 
The  teacher  may  hold  up  the  other  form,  and  the  pupils  do  as 
before.  • 

Second.  —  The  teacher  may  name  each  form,  and  request  all 
the  pupils  to  hold  it  np  as  the  name  is  given. 

Change  this  by  asking  the  pupils  to  hold  up  a  form  that  has 
two  equal  long  sides,  and  point  to  these  sides.  Then  ask  them  to 
hold  np  the  form  that  has  four  equal  sides;  then  the  one  that 
has  two  equal  short  sides.  Let  them  count  the  right  angles  of 
each  form. 

Square  and  Rhomb.  —  Give  an  exercise  with  the  square 
and  rhomb,  as  with  the  square  and  oblong.  Request  the  pupils 


METHODS  FOR  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  IN  FORM.    79 

to  find  wherein  the  square  and  rhomb  are  alike ;  also  wherein 
each  differs  from  the  other. 

Rhomb  and  Rhomboid.— Give  each  pupil  a  paper  rhomb 
and  rhomboid,  and  proceed  as  with  the  last  two  exercises. 

Triangles. — Triangles  may  next  be  taken ;  using  the  right- 
angled,  acute-angled,  and  obtuse-angled  triangles.  When  tjie  pu- 
pils can  readily  state  and  point  out  the  distinguishing  parts  of 
each  of  these  triangles,  give  a  similar  exercise  with  equilateral, 
isosceles,  and  scalene  triangles. 

These  exercises  may  be  changed  by  requesting  the  pupils  to 
fold  or  cut  pieces  of  paper  at  home  to  represent  the  forms  of  a 
lesson,  after  the  school  exercise  has  been  had.  The  paper  forms 
thus  made  should  be  brought  to  school  the  next  day  for  the 
teacher  to  examine ;  and  the  best  forms  may  be  shown  to  the 
class  and  commended ;  while  the  poorer  ones  may  be  used  for 
pointing  out  the  mistakes  made.  But  this  should  be  done  with- 
out allowing  the  pupils  to  know  whose  form  is  criticised. 

Circles,  etc. — Provide  forms  of  paper  representing  circles, 
semicircles,  rings,  crescents,  ovals,  and  ellipses,  and  give  exercises 
similar  to  those  with  the  square,  rhomb,  etc.  Lead  the  pupils  to 
notice  the  difference  between  the  semicircle  and  the  crescent; 
also  between  the  oval  and  the  ellipse. 

Polygons. — During  a  later  stage  of  instruction,  similar  ex- 
ercises may  be  given  with  the  polygons — pentagon,  hexagon,  hep- 
tagon, octagon,  etc. 

Folding  Squares. — Give  each  pupil  a  paper  square,  and 
request  the  class  to  fold  the  paper  so  as  to  make  an  oblong; 
then  to  fold  it  again,  so  as  to  make  a  small  square. 
.  Next,  having  unfolded  the  papers,  let  them  fold  the  square  so 
as  to  make  right-angled  triangles.  Then  let  them  tell  how  it  was 
folded,  as,  "  Folding  a  square  through  its  centre  from  corner  to 
corner  will  make  a  right-angled  triangle." 


80  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

Then  let  them  fold  this  triangle  again,  and  make  a  smaller 
right-angled  triangle.  Lead  pupils  to  notice  that  in  the  folding 
of  the  triangle  it  is  "  folded  from  the  middle  of  the  long  side  to 
its  opposite  corner." 

Folding  an  Oblong.  —  In  a  similar  manner  teach  the  pu- 
pils to  fold  oblongs  into  other  oblongs,  also  into  squares  and  into 
triangles. 

Folding  Rhombs. — Let  the  pupils  fold  a  rhomb  through 
its  centre  and  the  nearest  opposite  corners,  and  make  equilateral 
triangles. 

Folding  Equilateral  Triangles. — Fold  the  equilateral 
triangle  from  the  middle  of  one  side  to  its  opposite  corner,  and 
make  right-angled  triangles. 

Let  the  pupils  also  fold  rhomboids,  and  notice  what  kind  of 
triangles  can  be  made. 

Folding  Circles. — First  fold  circles  so  as  to  make  semicir- 
cles ;  next  fold  into  quadrants.  Let  the  pupils  notice  how  many 
quadrants  can  be  made  from  one  circle. 

Fold  the  circles  into  six  equal  parts — call  these  sectors  ;  let  the 
pupils  compare  the  shape  and  size  of  these  with  quadrants. 

Fold  the  circle  into  eight  equal  parts ;  count  the  sectors ;  com- 
pare them  with  quadrants. 

Request  the  pupils  to  cut  and  fold  these  forms  at  home. 


REVIEWING  LESSONS  IN  FORM.  81 


REVIEWING  FORM  LESSONS. 

GOOD  methods  of  teaching  provide  for  reviews  of  each 
subject  taught,  to  gather  up  and  fasten  the  important 
facts  in  the  pupil's  mind.  The  real  progress  of  the  learn- 
er can  be  determined  only  by  such  a  review  as  will  show 
what  the  pupil  retains  of  the  subject,  and  what  mental 
powers  have  been  strengthened  by  his  attention  to  that 
subject. 

In  conducting  the  review  the  intelligent  teacher  will 
use  such  methods  of  testing  the  amount  of  knowledge 
acquired,  and  the  learner's  ability  to  think  upon  the  sub- 
ject, as  will  prevent  the  giving  of  answers  in  formal, 
'memorized  phrases. 

The  review  should  not  attempt  to  cover  the  minute 
particulars  embraced  in  the  processes  of  instruction,  but 
aim  rather  to  ascertain  what  essential  facts  have  been  se- 
cured by  the  pupil ;  and  thus  prepare  for  extending  the 
instruction  upon  the  same  or  a  kindred  subject. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  review  should  be  as  brief 
and  comprehensive  as  the  circumstances  will  permit,  with 
due  attention  to  the  essential  facts.  The  review  should 
take  place  as  each  successive  stage  of  the  subject,  or 
period  of  instruction,  is  completed. 

For  the  further  illustration  of  this  matter  it  is  proposed, 
in  this  connection,  that  a  review  be  had  of  the  lessons 
which  are  outlined  in  the  Primary  Object  Lessons  under 
the  head  of  Form,'  and  that  this  review  shall  be  prepara- 
tory to  subsequent  and  advanced  lessons  upon  the  same 
subject. 

In  order  to  suggest  methods  by  which  teachers  may 
determine  whether  the  pupils  have  obtained  real  knowl- 

4* 


82  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

edge  concerning  the  object  or  lesson,  or  have  learned  only 
•words  about  it,  the  following  questions  and  directions  are 
presented  as  suggestive  of  a  modc'of  testing  the  result 
of  the  instruction ;  but  these  are  not  given  for  the  teach- 
er to  follow  literally.  In  every  instance  the  questions 
or  the  directions  should  be  adapted  by  the  teacher  to  the 
condition  and  circumstances  of  the  pupil,  and  be  sug- 
gested chiefly  by  his  previous  answer  to  a  question  or 
by  his  statement  upon  the  subject  under  consideration. 

REVIEW  EXERCISES. 

Lines,  and  their  Positions.— Hold  a  string  so  as  to  rep- 
resent a  straight  line. 

Hold  a  string  so  as  to  represent  a  curved  line. 

Draw  straight  and  curved  lines  on  your  slate. 

What  kind  of  line  does  the  cord  represent  when  it  is  wound 
around  a  top  ? 

Place  a  string  on  the  table  so  that  it  will  represent  a  spiral  line. 

In  what  position  is  the  kite  string  when  the  kite  is  high  in  the 
air? 

Hold  two  pencils  so  as  to  represent  parallel  lines. 

Draw  vertical,  oblique,  and  horizontal  parallel  lines  on  your  slate. 

Hold  one  pencil  perpendicular  to  another  pencil. 

Hold  a  pencil  perpendicular  to  the  side  of  the  desk. 

Angles.  —  Take  two  pencils  and  represent  an  acute  angle;  a 
right  angle;  an  obtuse  angle. 

If  you  should  cut  a  circular  pie  into  four  equal  parts,  what  angles 
would  be  formed  ? 

If  a  pie  be  cut  into  three  equal  pieces,  what  kind  of  angle  would 
each  piece  have  ? 

If  a  pie  be  cut  into  six  equal  pieces,  what  kind  of  angle  would 
each  piece  have  ? 

If  one  boy  had  a  piece  of  pie  with  an  obtuse  angle,  another  a 
piece  with  a  right  angle,  and  another  a  piece  with  an  acute  angle, 
which  boy  would  have  the  largest  piece  of  pie,  and  which  the 
smallest  piece  ? 

Plane  Forms. — How  many  lines  must  you  make  in  drawing 
a  square  ? 


KEVIEW  EXERCISES.  83 

How  many  lines  in  a  triangle  ? 
How  many  lines  in  an  oblong  ? 
Could  you  make  an  oblong  with  four  equal  sides  ? 

Triangles. — When  all  the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  equal,  what  is 
the  name  of  it  ? 

How  many  right  angles  can  a  triangle  have  ? 

How  many  obtuse  angles  can  a  triangle  have  ? 

If  a  triangle  has  one  right  angle,  or  one  obtuse  angle,  what  must 
the  other  two  triangles  be  ? 

How  many  acute  angles  must  each  triangle  have  ? 

How  many  acute  angles  has  a  right-angled  triangle  ? 

How  many  acute  angles  has  an  acute-angled  triangle  ? 

How  many  has  an  isosceles  triangle  ?     ' 

What  kind  of  angles  has  a  scalene  triangle  ? 

How  would  you  cut  a  square  in  half  so  as  to  make  two  triangles  ? 

Rhomb. — If  you  should  draw  a  plane  figure  with  four  equal 
sids,  two  acute,  and  two  obtuse  angles,  what  woul  d  be  its  shape  ? 
Where  is  the  difference  between  a  square  and  a  rhomb  ? 

Polygons. — What  kind  of  angles  do  pentagons,  hexagons,  hep- 
tagons, octagons,  etc.,  have  ? 

Oval. — What  is  the  difference  between  an  oval  and  an  ellipse  ? 
How  could  a  hard-boiled  egg  be  cut  so  as  to  represent  an  oval  ? 
Try  it  at  home. 

Circle. — How  could  a  boiled  egg  be  cut  so  as  to  represent  a 
circle  ? 

How  could  you  cut  a  circle  from  an  apple  ?     Try  it. 

If  you  cut  a  circle  in  half,  what  will  be  the  shape  of  each  part? 

What  have  you  eaten  that  had  the  shape  of  a  circle  ?  of  a  square  ? 
of  an  oblong  ? 

Solids. — Could  you  make  a  cube  of  an  apple  ?  of  a  piece  of 
cake  ?  of  a  slice  of  bread  ? 

How  would  you  make  it  ? 

[Ans.  Cut  it  so  that  it  would  have  six  equal  square  sides.] 

Did  you  ever  eat  a  cube  ?  What  was  it  made  of?  What  would 
you  like  to  have  a  cube  made  of  if  you  must  eat  it  ? 

If  you  should  cut  a  slice  from  the  side  of  a  cube,  what  would  be 
the  shape  of  the  slice  ? 


84  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Did  you  ever  eat  a  sphere  ?    What  was  it  rnade  of  ? 

Did  you  ever  eat  a  cylinder  ? 

Could  you  make  a  cone  of  something  good  to  eat  ? 

Did  you  ever  eat  anything  of  the  shape  of  an  ovoid? 

Could  you  cut  a  square  prism  from  a  slice  of  bread-and-butter  ? 

Could  you  make  a  pyramid  from  a  potato  ?  What  is  the  shape 
of  the  sides  of  all  pyramids  ? 

Could  you  make  a  sphere  from  a  hard-boiled  egg  ?  How  would 
you  make  a  hemisphere  from  an  orange  ?  How  many  hemispheres 
could  you  make  from  a  very  large  orange  ? 

If  you  break  a  cylindrical  stick  of  candy  in  half,  what  will  be  the 
shape  of  each  piece? 

What  shape  are  the  sides  of  all  prisms  ? 

What  shape  must  the  base  of  a  cube  have  ? 

Can  a  cylinder  have  a  square  base  ? 

If  a  prism  has  six  equal  oblong  sides,  what  must  be  the  shape  of 
its  ends  ? 

The  foregoing  questions  and  directions  will  suggest 
many  others  for  reviews.  The  questions  for  this  purpose 
should  be  so  formed  as  to  lead  the  pupils  to  discover  new 
facts  and  relations  in  the  lessons  on  Form. 


ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Point. — Make  a  small  dot  on  your  slate.  You  may  call  that  dot 
a  point.  Has  the  point  length  ?  Has  the  point  breadth  ?  Has  the 
point  thickness  ? 

A  point  has  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness.  It  has  position 
only.  A  point  has  no  magnitude  or  dimension. 

Line. — Make  two  points  on  your  slate.  Draw  a  line  from  one 
point  to  the  other.  Has  the  line  length  ?  Has  the  line  breadth  ? 
Has  the  line  thickness  ? 

A  line  has  neither  breadth  nor  thickness.  It  has  length  only.  A  line 
is  a  magnitude  of  one  dimension. 

Surface. — Make  four  points  on  your  slate  to  represent  the  four 
corners  of  a  square.  Draw  lines  so  as  to  connect  these  dots.  Move 


ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  FORM.  85 

your  finger  from  one  side  to  the  other  of  this  square ;  move  it  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  square.  That  part  within  these  lines 
is  the  surface.  Has  the  surface  length  ?  Has  the  surface  breadth  ? 
Has  the  surface  thickness  ? 

A  surface  has  length  and  breadth.  It  has  no  thickness.  A  surface  is 
a  magnitude  of  two  dimensions. 

Figure. — A.  form  that  is  represented  by  a  plane  surface  is  called 
a  figure.  The  size  and  shape  of  a  figure  are  determined  by  lines. 

Boundary. — How  many  straight  lines  form  the  sides  of  this 
square?  How  many  straight  lines  has  the  triangle?  How  many 
lines  has  the  circle  ? 

The  lines  that  form  the  sides  of  plane  Jigures  are  the  BOUNDARIES 
of  those  figures. 

The  boundaries  of  a  triangle,  a  square,  or  rhomb  are  called  its 
sides.  The  boundary  of  a  circle  is  its  circumference. 

How  many  boundaries  has  a  triangle  ?  How  many  has  a  square  ? 
How  many  has  a  rhomb  ?  How  many  has  a  pentagon  ?  How  many 
has  an  octagon  ? 

Linear  Figures.  —  Figures  that  are  bounded  by  lines  are 
called  linear  figures.  AVhat  is  the  least  number  of  lines  that  will 
bound  a  linear  figure  ?  What  kind  of  line  must  be  used  ? 

What  is  the  least  number  of  straight. lines  that  will  bound  a  linear 
figure  ? 

What  linear  figures  are  bounded  by  two  lines?  (Semicircle,  seg- 
ment, crescent.)  Represent  a  figure  bounded  by  two  lines. 

Make  three  different  figures,  each  bounded  by  one  line,  and  write 
the  name  of  each  figure  in  it.  (  Circle,  oval,  ellipse.) 

Make  a  figure  bounded  by  two  curved  lines,  and  write  its  name. 

Quadrilateral. — Figures  that  have  four  sides  or  boundaries  are 
called  quadrilaterals;  as  square,  rhomboid,  trapezium,  trapezoid,  etc.* 

Parallelogram, — Figures  that  have  their  opposite  sides  paral- 
lel are  culled  parallelograms;  as,  squares,  oblongs,  rhombs,  rhomboids. 

Polygon. — Figures  that  have  more  than  four  sides  are  called 
polygons^    Regular  polygons  have  equal  sides,  and  equal  angles. 
Make  six  kinds  of  quadrilaterals,  and  write  the  name  of  each. 

*  See  Primary  Object  Lessons,  pp.  97, 99, 101, 103.          t  Ibid.,  pp.  103, 104, 105. 


86  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Make  four  kinds  of  parallelograms,  and  write  the  name  of  each. 

Make  six  differing  figures  each  bounded  by  three  lines,  and  write 
their  names. 

When  may  we  call  a  plane  figure  with  two  equal  acute,  and  two 
equal  obtuse  angles  a  rhomb  ? 

What  form  may  be  produced  from  a  rhomb  by  so  changing  its 
angles  as  to  make  them  all  equal  ? 

How  many  squares  can  you  draw  around  a  single  square,  so  that 
one  side  of  each  shall  be  bounded  by  one  of  the  sides  of  the  single 
square  ?  Try  it. 

How  many  squares  can  you  place  around  one  square,  so  that  it 
shall  be  touched  by  each  square  ? 

Diagram. — When  a  piaffe  form  is  spoken  of  with  regard  to  its 
shape,  it  is  called  &  figure.  When  several  lines  are  arranged  so  as  to 
represent  two  or  more  combined  figures  for  the  purpose  of  illustra- 
tion, it  is  called  a  diagram. 

Draw  a  figure  on  your  slate. 

Draw  a  diagram  on  your  slate. 

Circle  and  its  Parts.* — Direct  the  pupils  to  draw  six  cir- 
cles on  their  slates  with  a  string  and  pencil.  Write  above  them  the 
name  of  the  figures ;  and  write  around  the  first  circle  the  name  of 
the  boundary,  and  in  the  circle  the  name  of  the  point  in  the  middle. 

Divide  the  second  circle  into  two  equal  parts,  and  write  the  name 
of  the  parts  on  one  of  them. 

Divide  the  third  circle  into  four  equal  parts,  and  write  the  name 
of  the  parts  on  two  of  them. 

Draw  a  line  on  the  fourth  circle  to  represent  the  greatest  distance 
across  it,  and  write  the  name  of  it  on  the  line ;  also, 
draw  another  line  half  the  distance  across  the  circle, 
and  write  its  name  on  it. 

Draw  lines  in  the  fifth  circle  to  represent  a  sector(l) 
and  a  segment^),  and  write  the  name  in  each. 
Draw  lines  on  the  sixth  circle  to  represent  a  chord(S)  and  an  «?r(4), 
and  write  the  name  by  each.    Lead  the  pupils  to  notice 
the  differences  between  a  sector  and  a  segment;  also  be- 
•3   tween  a  chord  and  an  arc,  and  to  point  out  each. 

Request  the  pupils  to  state  what  is  represented  in 
each  circle.    Lead  them  to  notice  that  all  the  diame- 
ters of  the  same  circle  are  equal ;  that  all  the  radii  of  the  same  cir- 

*  See  Primary  Object  Lessons,  pp.  106, 108, 111-114. 


ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  FORM.  87 

cle  are  equal ;  and  that  the  radius  is  always  half  of  the 
diameter. 

Lead  them  also  to  notice  that  the  chord  of  the  arc  of 
a  sextant  of  any  circle  equals  the  radius  of  that  circle. 
The  dotted  lines  represent  the  chord  of  the  arc,  in  this 
cut.  Let  the  pupils  prove  this  equality  with  a  pair  of  compasses. 

Sextant. — Draw  a  circle  and  divide  it  into  six  equal  parts,  or 
sectors.  Each  of  these  parts  may  be  called  a  sextant. 

If  a  circle  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts  or  sectors,  each  part 
may  be  called  an  octant. 

Tangent. — Draw  a  circle;  then  draw  a  straight  X^^V* 

line  so  that  it  will  pass  the  circle,  just  touching  its  cir-  /  \ 

cumference.     This  line  is  called  a  tangent.     The  radius  I  I 

of  the  circle  forms  a  right  angle  with  the  tangent.  \^^^/ 

Degrees. — Every  circle  contains  360  degrees. 

When  a  circle  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  what  is  each  part 
called  ? 

How  many  degrees  has  the  curved  side  of  each  quadrant  ? 

How  many  degrees  has  each  right  angle  ? 

Which  contains  more  degrees,  a  right  angle  or  an  obtuse  angle  ? 

That  which  any  angle  lacks  of  being  a  right  angle,  i.  e.,  that  which 
it  lacks  of  90  degrees,  is  the  complement  of  the  angle. 

What  part  of  a  circle  is  90  degrees  ?  What  part  is  45  degrees  ? 
What  part  is  180  degrees  ? 

How  many  degrees  would  an  object  elevated  75  degrees  lack  of 
being  vertical  ? 

The  sum  of  three  angles  of  a  triangle  is  180  degrees. 

Each  of  the  angles  of  an  equilateral  triangle  is  one-third  of  180 
degrees,  or  60  degrees. 

Concentric  Circles.  —  When  one  or  more  cir- 
cles having  the  same  centre  are  drawn  within  a  circle, 
they  are  called  concentric  circles. 

Make  two  concentric  circles.     Draw  four  concentric 
circles.     Are  any  two  of  the  circles  in  the  same  con- 
centric circles  of  the  same  size  ?    Do  two  of  the  circles  have  the 
same  centre  ? 

Eccentric  Circles.  —  When  two  circles,  one 
within  the  other,  have  not  the  same  centre,  they  are  call- 
ed eccentric  circles.  Make  eccentric  circles. 


88 


MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 


About  Angles. — The  length  of  the  lines  that  form  an  angle 
can  in  no  way  affect  the  size  of  the  angle.  The  size  of  an  angle 
is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  opening  between  the  lines,  or  the 
difference  in  the  direction  of  the  two  lines.  Illustrate  this  with  a 
pair  of  scissors  and  by  lines  on  the  blackboard. 

Two  right  angles  are  equal  to  each  other.  Draw  two,  and  let  the 
pupils  compare  them. 

All  the  angles  formed  on  the  same  side  of  a  straight  line,  by  other 
lines  meeting  at  the  same  point,  are  equal  to  two  right  angles.  Show 
this  fact  by  drawing  a  straight  line,  and,  from  a  point  near  the  centre, 
extend  lines  so  as  to  form  angles  of  different  sizes,  and  let  the  pupils 
see  that  all  the  angles  thus  made  occupy  the  same  space  as  two  right 
angles — that  they  are  equal  to  only  two  right  angles. 

If  one  straight  line  meet  another  straight  line,  the  sum  of  the  two 
adjacent  or  joining  angles  equals  two  right  angles.  Lead  the  pupils 
to  see  this  fact  by  drawing  such  lines  and  angles  on  their^slates. 

Triangles.  —  The  three  angles  of  a  triangle  equal  two  right 
angles. 

How  many  equilateral  triangles  can  be  placed  together  so  that  a 
point  of  each  shall  touch  a  point  of  all  the  others?  Cut  equilateral 
triangles  from  thick  paper,  and  let  the  pupils  find  an  answer  to  this 
question ;  and  observe  what/0rm  will  be  thus  produced. 

The  largest  triangle  that  can  be  drawn  within  a  circle  is  an  equi-- 
lateral  triangle.  Let  the  pupils  try  to  draw  it  on  their  slates. 

The  area  of  a  circle  inscribed  in  an  equilateral  triangle  is  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  of  a  circle  circumscribed  about  the  same  triangle. 

The  area  of  an  equilateral  triangle  inscribed  in  a  circle  is  one- 
fourth  of  the  area  of  an  equilateral  triangle  circumscribed  about  the 
same  circle. 

Squares.— 1.  A  square  drawn  on  the  diagonal  of  another  square 
is  just  twice  as  large  as  the  first  square. 
Represent  this  fact  by  drawing  two  such 
squares ;  and  let  the  pupils  learn  it  by 
drawing  squares  on  the  diagonals  of 
other  squares. 

2.  A  square  drawn  within  another 
square,  so  that  its  corners  shall  touch  the 
middle  of  the  sides  of  the  outer  one,  will 
be  just  half  as  large  as  the  outer  square. 

Illustrate  this  fact  by  folding  a  paper 
square  as  represented  by  the  dotted  lines 


ADVANCED   LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


89 


in  this  figure,  so  that  the  corners  of  the  outside  square  shall  meet  in 
the  centre  of  the  small  one. 

3.  A  square  drawn  outside  of  a  circle,  so  that  the  centre  of  each 
side  of  the  square  shall  touch  the  circle  at  four  oppo- 
site points,  will  be  just  twice  as  large  as  another  square 

drawn  within  the  same  circle  so  that  its  corners  shall 
touch  four  points  of  the  circle. 

Illustrate  this  by  drawing  a  circle  circumscribed  by 
a  square ;  and  another  circle  of  equal  size,  with  an  enclosed  square. 

4.  The  size  of  a  square  drawn  on  the 
hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle 
equals  the  size  of  the  squares  drawn  on 
the  other  two  sides  of  the  triangle. 

Illustrate  this  by  drawing  squares  on  the' 
sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle ;  and  let 
the  pupils  make  the  illustration  on  their 
slates,  and  count  the  squares  of  the  base 
and  perpendicular  together;  then  count 
those  of  the  hypothenuse. 

How  to  Find  Areas.— A  square  whose  side  measures  one 
inch  is  called  a  square  inch.  The  area  of  such  a  square  is  a  square 
inch.  The  area  of  a  square  whose  side  is  two  inches  is  four  square 
inches. 

The  area,  in  square  inches,  of  any  rectangular  form  may  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  inches  in  its  length  by  the  number  in 
its  breadth. 

Find  the  area  of  a  figure  whose  sides  are  5  inches  and  9  inches. 

What  is  the  area  of  a  square  which  measures  twelve  inches  on 
each  side  ? 

144  square  inches  make  one  square  foot.  Show,l>y  a  diagram, how 
many  square  inches  there  are  in  three  square  feet. 

Show  how  many  square  feet  there  are  in  one  square  yard. 

Which  is  larger,  a  piece  of  paper  containing  eight  square  inches,  or 
a  piece  of  paper  eight  inches  square?  Represent  the  difference  on  the 
blackboard. 

Is  one  square  foot  larger  than  one  foot  square  ? 

Which  is  larger,  four  square  feet,  or  four  feet  square  ? 

Let  pupils  represent  the  difference  between  them  by  making  dia- 
grams on  their  slates. 


To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle,  multiply  the  length  of  its  base 
by  one-half  of  its  height. 


90  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Measuring  Circles,  etc. — Take  a  hoop,  measure  its  diame- 
ter with  a  string,  place  this  string  on  the  outside  of  the  hoop  and 
see  how  many  times  its  length  will  be  required  to  go  around  it. 

Three  times  its  length  will  not  reach  quite  around.  Nobody 
knows  or  can  find  out  exactly  how  many  times  farther  it  is  around  a 
circle  than  across  it;  but  the  proportion  between  the  circumference 
and  diameter  is  about  22  to  7,  so  that  about  3}  times  the  diameter 
will  equal  the  circumference.  But  if  you  wish  to  be  more  exact, 
observe  the  following  rule : 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  multiply  its  diameter  by 
3.1416. 

If  you  know  the  circumference  of  a  circle  and  want  to  find  its 
diameter,  use  the  following  rule  : 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle,  multiply  its  circumference  by  7, 
and  divide  the  product  by  22. 

Give  the  pupils  examples  to  apply  these  rules.  Let  them  find  the 
circumference  of  a  plate  whose  diameter  is  seven  inches;  of  a  wheel 
whose  diameter  is  nine  feet.  Let  them  find  the  diameter  of  a  wheel 
whose  circumference  is  twenty-two  feet;  of  a  log  whose  circumference 
is  sixteen  feet. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle,  multiply  the  circumference  by  one- 
half  of  the  radius. 

Let  the  pupils  try  this  with  a  circle  whose  radius  is  five  feet ;  with 
one  whose  diameter  is  eight  feet. 

Find  the  area  of  a  circle  by  multiplying  the  diameter  by  itself, 
then  multiplying  this  product  by  £  of  -2T2-,  or  |£. 

Let  the  pupils  prove  these  two  rules  by  finding  the  area  of  a  circle 
whose  diameter  is  six  feet. 

Which  pie  would  be  larger,  one  of  six  inches  in  diameter,  or  one 
of  sixteen  inches  in  circumference  ? 

How  to  Draw  an  Ellipse.— Drive  two  pins  into  a  board 
about  three  inches  apart;  fasten  the  ends  of  a  string  about  six 
inches  long  to  these  pins,  then  put  a  pencil  inside  the  string,  stretch 
it  out  and  move  it  around,  marking  a  line  with  the  pencil ;  or  make 
a  loop  six  inches  long,  place  it  around  the  two  pins,  put  the  pencil 
inside  of  the  loop,  stretch  it  out  and  move  it  around  the  pins,  mark- 
ing as  it  moves.  In  a  room  of  the  shape  of  an  ellipse,  a  person 
standing  in  one  focus — a  point  corresponding  to  one  of  the  pins — 
could  hear  distinctly  the  whisper  of  a  person  at  the  other  focus. 


ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  FORM.  91 

Foci. — The  points  where  the  pins  are  placed 
are  the  foci  of  the  ellipse.  When  the  foci  are  near 
each  other,  the  ellipse  is  nearly  a  circle.  The  orbit 
or  path  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  is  of  the  form 
of  an  ellipse,  and  one  of  the  foci  represents  the 
position  of  the  sun  within  the  orbit.  Planets  have  similar  orbits. 

Axis. — A  line  drawn  lengthwise  of  the  ellipse, 
through  the  foci,  is  called  the  major  axis.  A  line 
drawn  crosswise  of  the  ellipse  through  its  centre,  per- 
pendicular to  the  major  axis,  is  called  the  minor  axis. 

To  find  the  area  of  an  ellipse,  multiply  one-half  of  the  two  axes 
together,  and  that  product  by  3.1416. 

A  Cycloid  is  the  path  of  a  point  in  the  circumference  of  a 
wheel  rolling  on  a  level  surface.  Take  a  large  spool,  stick  a  pin 
in  one  end  near  the  edge,  roll  the  spool  slowty  on 
the  table  and  the  path  of  the  pin  will  be  in  the  form 
of  a  cycloid. 

Now,  if  you  could  turn  the  cycloid  upside  down, 
the  inside  of  the  curve  would  represent  the  line  of 
swiftest  descent.  If  a  hill  was  hollowed  out  in  this 
shape,  sleds  would  slide  down  it  faster  than  they 
could  down  a  hill  of  any  other  shape  of  the  same  height.  This  is 
the  line  which  the  eagle  makes  in  his  swiftest  descent. 

Catenary. — Suspend  a  small  chain  between  two  posts,  and  the 
curve  it  forms  is  called  a  catenary.  A  loosely  hung  clothes-line,  and 
the  curve  in  the  jumping-rope  as  it  is  swung,  represent  the  catenary. 
If  a  chain  made  in  the  form  of  the  one  inside  of  a  watch,  and  sus- 
pended at  each  end  so  as  to  form  the  catenary,  the  curve  might  be 
turned  upside  down,  and  it  would  stand  without  falling  in.  This 
curve  represents  the  shape  of  the  strongest  possible  arch  for  a 
bridge. 

Solids. — Look  at  the  cube.  How  many  faces  has  it?  Height 
or  thickness  is  the  distance  between  the  top  and  bottom.  Breadth 
is  the  distance  between  the  left  and  the  right  side.  Length  is  the 
distance  between  the  front  and  the  back.  Has  the  cube  thickness  or 
height?  Has  the  cube  breadth?  Has  the  cube  length?  The  cube 
is  a  solid. 

A  solid  has  thickness  or  height,  breadth  and  length.  A  solid  is  a  mag- 
nitude of  three  dimensions. 


92  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Solid  Angle.  —  How  many  surfaces  has  this  cube?  Point  to 
three  surfaces  that  meet  in  a  corner.  A  corner  where  three  surfaces 
meet  is  a  solid  angle.  How  many  solid  angles  has  a  cube  ?  How 
many  solid  angles  has  a  square  prism?  How  many  solid  angles  has 
a  triangular  prism  ? 

Other  Facts. — Many  interesting  facts  may  be  brought  before 
the  pupils  in  these  lessons  on  Form,  which  will  awaken  a  taste  for 
the  study  of  geometry,  and  prepare  them  for  understanding  it.  The 
teacher  should  watch  for  favorable  opportunities  for  bringing  these 
facts  to  their  attention,  so  that  they  may  be  presented  in  answer  to, 
or  explanation  of,  questions  asked  by  the  pupils.  Sometimes  this 
opportunity  may  be  found  by  the  teacher  making  statements  or  ask- 
ing questions,  somewhat  like  the  following :  . 

A  man  had  a  window  a  yard  square,  which  let  in  too  much  light ; 
he  covered  up  one-half  of  it,  and  still  had  a  square  window  a  yard 
high  and  a  yard  wide.  How  did  he  do  it  ?  [See  Squares,  page  88.] 

Can  you  place  nine  trees  in  ten  rows,  with  three  trees  in  each  row  ? 

Can  you  show  by  cutting  a  turnip  which  is  greater,  two  inches  solid, 
or  two  solid  inches  ? 

Draw  a  figure  of  half  afoot  square,  and  another  of  half  a  square 
foot,  and  see  which  is  larger. 

Show  how  many  cubes  can  be  made  to  touch  one  point. 

Show  how  many  hexagons  you  can  place  around  another  hexagon, 
so  that  each  shall  touch  the  central  one. 

Can  the  figure  formed  by  these  three  squares  be 
divided  into  four  equal  parts  of  the  same  shape  ? 

•j , — |         If  you  had  two  balls  to  be  covered,  one  two  inches 

in  diameter,  the  other  six  inches  in  diameter,  how 
much  more  leather  would  it  take  to  cover  one  than 
to  cover  the  other  ? 

[Notice  how  many  times  the  diameter  of  one  is  contained  in  that 
of  the  other.  The  square  of  this  number  will  show  how  many  times 
as  much  it  will  take  to  cover  the  large  ball  as  it  will  to  cover  the 
small  one.  The  diameter  of  one  is  three  times  that  of  the  other;  the 
square  of  three  is  nine.  It  will  take  nine  times  as  much.] 

Axiom. — A  truth  that  is  self-evident,  needing  no  proof;  as  two 
lines  may  be  drawn  of  the  same  length. 

Postulate. — A  truth  too  plain  to  need  proof.  A  thing  so  sim- 
ple that  no  doubt  appears  that  it  can  be  done ;  hence  we  are  asked 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  it  can  be  done.  ' 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHING  COLOR.        03 


CQLQB. 

ADDITIONAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHING  COLOR. 

THE  great  progress  made  during  the  past  twenty  years 
in  matters  pertaining  to  the  nature  and  relations  of  colors, 
and  the  results  of  experience  with  color  as  a  matter  of 
school  instruction,  show  the  great  importance  of  giving 
careful  attention  to  the  following  points  concerning  this 
subject : 

First.  Training  children  to  distinguish,  match,  and 
name  colors,  as  the  means  of  developing  the  perception  of 
colors. 

Second.  Ascertaining,  l)y  means  of  this  training,  which 
2)upils,ifany,  are  color-Hind  in  regard  to  either  red,  green, 

or  purple. 

\ 

Third.  Teaching  children,  as  advanced  lessons,  to  un- 
derstand harmony  of  colors,  and  to  determine  what  colors 
appear  well  when  placed  together. 

In  view  of  the  great  importance  of  giving  the  lessons 
on  color  so  that  they  may  not  fail  to  secure  the  results 
aimed  at;  and  believing  that  variety  in  good  modes  of 
presenting  any  subject  tends  to  increase  the  interest  of 
pupils  and  perfect  their  understanding  of  it,  I  deem  it 
important  for  teachers  that  other  methods  for  instruction 
on  color  be  given  in  addition  to  those  indicated  in  my 
Primary  Object  Lessons;  and  furthermore,  I  trust  that 
the  additional  information  also  presented  in  this  book 


94:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

will  be  found  interesting  and  instructive  to  teachers. 
Many  teachers  find  it  difficult  to  so  combine  individual 
and  class-teaching  as  to  secure  the  best  results  in  the  least 
time.  A  few  hints  about  giving  lessons  to  large  classes 
will  assist  in  overcoming  this  difficulty.  It  is  for  these 
reasons,  and  others  stated  under  the  head  of  Form,  that 
the  following  lessons  and  statements  are  given. 

Train  Pupils  to  Compare  and  Name  Colors.— Pro- 
vide pieces  of  colored  papers,  or  cards,  which  represent  the  most 
prominent  colors,  as  red,  yellow,  blue,  green,  purple,  and  proceed 
somewhat  as  follows : 

First.  Distribute  red,  yellow,  and  blue  papers,  giving  each  pu- 
pil one  color.  Then  the  teacher  may  hold  up  one  of  these  colors, 
and  request  all  the  pupils  to  compare  the  color  shown  by  the 
teacher  with  the  one  held  by  themselves,  and  those  who  have  the 
same  color  to  hold  it  up.  When  all  hands  are  again  down,  the 
teacher  may  hold  up  another  color  and  require  the  pupils  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way.  Continue  this  exercise  until  the  three 
colors  have  been  thus  compared  several  times. 

Then  change  the  manner  by  which  the  pupils  show  that  the 
color  held  is  like  the  one  held  by  the  teacher,  by  requesting  each 
pupil  who  has  a  like  color  to  stand,  holding  the  color  in  front  of 
the  breast. 

Should  any  pupil  stand  who  has  a  color  differing  from  the  one 
shown  by  the  teacher,  ask  that  pupil  to  come  in  front  of  the  class 
and  compare  his  color  with  the  one  held  by  the  teacher ;  and  let 
that  pupil,  also  the  class,  decide  whether  the  two  are  alike.  Pro- 
ceed in  a  similar  manner  with  each  of  the  other  colors.  Should 
it  be  discovered  that  the  pupil  cannot  distinguish  each  color,  tests 
for  color-blindness  should  be  made.  [See  "  Color-Blindness,"  for 
methods  of  testing.] 

Second.  Distribute  in  like  manner  paper  or  other  material  of 
.orange,  green,  and  purple  colors,  and  proceed  as  in  the  previous 
exercises. 


TO   COMPARE   AND  NAME  COLORS.  95 

Third.  Distribute  the  papers  as  in  previous  lessons,  and  ask 
each  pupil  to  notice  what  color  he  has,  so  that  he  can  remember 
it  when  he  sees  another  paper  of  the  same  color.  Then  direct  all 
to  put  their  colors  out  of  sight  by  folding  their  arms  over  them, 
and  the  teacher  may  now  hold  up  a  color  and  request  those  who 
have  a  color  like  it  to  stand  and  show  it.  Should  any  one  stand 
who  has  a  different  color,  call  him  in  front  of  the  class,  and  let 
him  compare  the  color  that  he  has  with  the  colors  which  the 
teacher  holds,  and  both  himself  and  the  class  decide,  as  before, 
whether  the  colors  are  alike.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with 
the  other  colors.  When  the  same  mistake  is  repeated  by  a  pupil, 
test  for  "color-blindness." 

Fourth.  When  the  children  know  the  names  of  the  common 
colors,  the  teacher  may  request  all  who  have  a  blue  color  to  show 
it ;  then  those  who  have  a  red  color  may  hold  it  up,  and  so  on. 
In  each,  instance  let  the  class  correct  the  mistakes  made  in  show- 
ing the  wrong  color.  Lessons  may  be  given  in  the  same  manner 
with  each  of  the  common  colors. 

At  the  close  of  each  of  these  exercises  call  upon  pupils  to  col- 
lect the  papers — one  the  red,  another  the  blue,  another  the  yellow 
ones.  Should  any  mistake  be  made  in  collecting  the  proper  color, 
let  the  class  correct  it.  These  exercises  will  teach  the  children  to 
compare  colors  while  seeing  them,  to  compare  them  by  remem- 
bering them,  and  to  learn  their  names. 

To  distribute  these  colored  papers  quickly  and  in  an  orderly 
way,  they  may  be  placed  upon  slates,  and  one  slate  passed  to  each 
row  of  seats ;  or  they  may  be  put  into  envelopes  made  of  stout 
paper,  and  as  these  are  passed  from  pupil  to  pupil,  each  one  may 
take  out  a  paper  and  pass  on  the  envelope.  In  a  similar  manner 
the  collections  of  these  papers  might  be  made  at  the  close  of  the 
lesson. 

Such  lessons  as  have  been  described  here  may  be  given  to  chil- 
dren during  their  first  year  at  school.  Each  lesson  should  be 
brief,  occupying  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  at  one  time.  The 
first  lessons,  which  especially  ought  to  be  short,  should  embody 
illustrations  by  the  teacher,  calculated  to  attract  the  attention  of 


96  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  pupils.     Subsequent  lessons,  which  require  more  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils,  may  be  longer. 

Order  of  Presenting  the  Lesson.— The  order  of  giving 
these  lessons  may  be  stated  briefly,  as  follows : 

First.  Showing  colors  by  the  teacher;  observing,  comparing, 
and  matching  colors  by  the  pupils. 

Second.  Pointing  out,  naming,  and  otherwise  indicating  colors, 
by  the  pupils,  so  as  to  show  whether  or  not  they  can  distinguish 
them. 

Changes  in  the  methods  of  representing  the  different  colors  in- 
crease the  interest  of  the  children  in  the  lesson ;  and  changes  in 
the  modes  by  which  the  pupils  represent  what  they  know  of  col- 
or, also  add  interest  to  these  exercises.  Avoid,  therefore,  the  use 
of  stereotyped  forms  of  giving  the  lessons,  as  these  lead  to  me- 
chanical routine. 

Other  Methods.  —  1.  Place  the  chart  of  colors  before  the 
class ;  call  out  two  pupils ;  let  one  take  a  pointer,  the  other  a 
color-card,  and  show  it  first  to  the  one  holding  the  pointer,  then 
to  the  class,  while  the  one  with  the  pointer  tries  to  point  to  the 
same  color  on  the  chart — the  class  saying  "  right "  when  he  suc- 
ceeds. As  these  two  pupils  return  to  their  seats,  two  others  may 
be  called  on  to  proceed  in  a  like  manner  with  other  colors. 

2.  This  form  of  giving  the  lessons  may  be  changed  by  calling 
out  three  pupils  at  a  time;  one  to  use  the  pointer,  another  to 
select  the  card  of  the  color  named  by  the  teacher,  and  the  third 
to  take  a  colored  crayon  resembling  the  color  of  the  selected  card ; 
and,  while  the  pupil  with  the  pointer  and  the  one  with  the  card 
proceed  as  before,  the  one  with  the  crayon  makes  a  mark  on  the 
blackboard  to  show  the  class  what  color  he  has  selected. 

3.  For  another  exercise,  let  a  pupil  stand  by  the  table  on  which 
a  variety  of  colored  objects  are  placed,  and,  as  one  member  of  the 
class  after  another  names  a  color,  he  is  to  try  to  find  it  and  hold 
it  before  the  class ;  when  "  right "  or  "  wrong "  will  be  said  by 
the  pupils,  as  the  case  may  be.     When  this  pupil  fails  to  select 
the  color  named  promptly,  the  one  who  named  it  may  go  and 
find  the  color,  and  then  take  the  place  at  the  table,  while  the  first 


MIXTURE  OF  COLOPtS.  97 

pupil  returns  to  his  scat.  During  this  exercise,  the  aim  of  the 
class  will  be  to  name  the  color  which  the  pupil  does  not  know 
well  enough  to  select  promptly,  and  thus  send  him  to  his  seat, 
that  another  may  take  his  place  at  the  table. 

4.  When  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  the  colors, 
fresh  interest  may  be  added  to  the  lessons  by  calling  out  different 
pupils  to  act  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  conducting  the  exercise. 

These  different  modes  of  conducting  the  lessons  on 
color  may  be  changed  once  in  two  or  three  weeks,  as  the 
frequency  of  the  lesson  and  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
seem  to  require.  By  these  changes,  the  pupils  will  not 
become  weary  of  the  lessons  before  learning  all  that  is 
aimed  to  be  taught  by  them. 

The  children  should  also  be  encouraged  to  observe  the 
colors  of  flowers  and  other  objects  at  home,  and  at  school 
to  tell  the  name  of  the  colors  thus  observed.  With  young 
children  these  color  lessons  may  be  given  daily,  or  every 
other  day;  while  with  more  advanced  primary  pupils  one 
lesson  each  week  will  suffice.  In  each  case,  both  the 
length  of  the  lessons  and  their  frequency  should  be  adapt- 
ed to  the  other  school  exercises. 


RESULTS  OF  MIXTURE  OF  COLORS. 

FOR  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  results  of  the  mixt- 
ure of  colors,  with  a  view  to  explaining  why  some  colors 
are  called  primary,  and  others  secondary,  procure  pig- 
ments, in  oil-colors  or  in  water -colors.  Select  carmine 
for  the  red,  chrome  for  the  yellow,  and  a  light  or  medium 
ultramarine  for  the  Hue.  Provide,  also,  a  small  palette, 
and  two  palette-knives.  .  Of  course,  these  pigments  do  not 
perfectly  represent  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue  as  seen  in 
the  solar  spectrum  ;  yet  they  furnish  good  illustrations  of 
those  colors. 

5 


98  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Since  it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  methods  of 
giving  lessons  should  be  such  as  to  awaken  and  secure  an 
interested  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  care  should 
be  taken  to  give  them  an  opportunity  of  seeing  all  that 
you  do  to  illustrate  the  lesson.  You  may  commence  by 
placing  on  the  palette  a  little  of  the  Hue  arid  of  the  yel- 
low pigments.  Spread  these  out,  side  by  side,  with  the 
palette-knives,  then  request  the  children  to  name  each  of 
these  colors.  Next  proceed  to  mix  these  two  colors  to- 
gether within  view  of  the  class,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  tell 
what  you  are  doing.  When  you  have  produced  the  green, 
by  mixing  the  yellow  and  the  Hue^  ask  the  pupils : 

"  What  color  do  you  see  now  on  the  palette  ?" 

"  What  colors  did  I  mix  together?" 

"  What  color  have  I  made  by  mixing  the  yellow  and  the  blue  ?" 

Then  you  may  write  on  the  blackboard  the  following : 

Mixing  yellow  and  blue  pigments  will  make  a  green. 
Require  the  class  to  read  this  two  or  three  times. 

Before  illustrating  to  the  pupils  how  another  secondary  color 
may  be  produced,  require  them  to  show  that  they  observed  and 
understood  what  you  did  to  produce  the  green  color.  Children 
become  acquainted  with  colors  by  seeing  them,  by  comparing 
them,  and  by  making  experiments  with  them.  Therefore,  in 
teaching  color  to  your  pupils,  it  is  necessary  that  you  should  pro- 
vide the  means  for  enabling  them  to  learn  colors  by  personal  ex- 
perience with  colored  substances.  You  may  provide  such  means 
by  the  use  of  pigments,  colored  papers,  colored  crayons,  etc.  Va- 
rious exercises  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  these  I 
will  describe  as  illustrative  lessons. 

Illustrative  Exercises. — First.  Call  a  pupil  to  point 
out,  on  a  chart  of  colors,  the  two  colors  that  were  mixed,  and 
require  the  class  to  name  each  as  it  is  pointed  out ;  and  at  the 
same  time  let  one  pupil  select  the  same  colors  from  colored  cards, 


ILLUSTRATIVE  EXERCISES  IN   MIXING  COLORS.  99 

or  colored  papers,  and  show  them  to  the  class ;  and  tell  another 
pupil  to  select  a  colored  card  to  represent  the  color  produced  by 
mixing  the  yellow  and  blue,  and  show  it  to  the  class ;  at  the 
same  time  the  pupil  with  the  pointer  may  point  to  the  green  on 
the  chart  of  colors.  Continue  this  exercise  with  different  pupils 
until  all  appear  to  know  the  fact  that  green  may  be  made  by 
mixing  yellow  and  blue  pigments. 

Second.  For  your  second  illustration  of  secondary  colors,  place 
on  the  palette,  side  by  side,  red  and  yellow.  After  the  pupils 
have  observed  and  given  the  names  of  these  colors,  proceed  to 
mix  them  together,  as  before,  at  the  sarhe  time  asking  the  class 
to  tell  what  you  are  doing.  When  you  have  produced  a  good 
orange,  ask  the  pupils  to  tell  what  color  you  made  by  mixing  red 
and  yellow.  Now  write  on  the  blackboard  : 

Mixing  red  and  yellow  pigments  will  make  an  orange  color. 

Require  the  pupils  to  read  it  two  or  three  times.  Next  call 
out  pupils,  as  before,  one  to  point  to  the  red  and  yellow  on  the 
chart,  one  to  select  those  two  colors  from  the  color-cards,  and  one 
to  select  a  card  to  represent  the  color  that  was  produced  by  mix- 
ing red  and  yellow.  Continue  this  exercise  as  with  the  one  for 
green. 

Third.  For  a  third  lesson  on  mixing  colors,  take  red  and  blue, 
place  them  on  a  palette,  and  proceed  as  in  the  previous  lessons, 
showing  that  these  two  colors  will  produce  a  purple. 

Fourth.  For  a  fourth  lesson  on  mixing  colors,  write  on  the 
blackboard  the  result  of  the  illustrations  in  the  three  previous 
lessons : 

Mixing  red  and  yellow  will  make  orange. 

Mixing  red  and  blue  will  make  purple. 

Mixing  Hue  and  yellow  will  make  green. 

Then  call  upon  three  pupils  each  to  select  from  col  or -cards, 
or  other  colored  objects  (without  telling  them  the  names  of  the 
colors),  two  colors  that  will  produce  another;  also  call  upon 


100  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

three  other  pupils  to  select  colors  that  would  be  produced  by 
mixing  each  of  the  two  colors  held  by  the  first  three  pupils. 

Other  Methods. — You  can  also  illustrate  the  fact  that  sec- 
ondary colors  may  be  produced  by  mixing  two  primary  colors 
with  good  colored  crayons.  You  may  find  it  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  get  a  good  red  crayon,  but  you  can  obtain  good  yellow 
and  blue  crayons. 

Take  a  piece  of  old  white  muslin,  place  it  on  a  slate,  or  on  a 
piece  of  smooth  board ;  make  a  broad  line  on  it,  at  least  half  an 
inch  wide,  with  a  yellow  crayon ;  then  make  a  broad  line  with  the 
blue  crayon  across  the  yellow.  By  mixing  these  colors  a  little 
where  they  cross  each  other,  a  green  will  appear.  By  making 
similar  lines,  crossing  each  other,  with  red  and  yellow  crayons,  an 
orange  color  may  be  made.  By  using  red  and  blue  crayons,  a 
purple  may  be  made.  Similar  results  may  be  shown  on  the 
blackboard  by  using  colored  crayons,  but  the  colors  will  be  less 
distinct. 

A  good  exercise  may  be  had  for  ascertaining  how  well  the  pu- 
pils remember  the  several  facts  that  have  been  illustrated  with  the 
mixing  of  colors,  by  calling  upon  a  pupil  to  take  a  red  crayon 
and  make  two  lines  on  the  blackboard;  then  ask  another  pupil 
to  take  another  colored  crayon  and  draw  across  one  of  the  red 
lines  a  color  that  should  be  mixed  with  red  to  make  orange.  Ask 
another  pupil  to  take  a  crayon  and  draw  a  line  across  the  other 
red  one,  to  show  what  color  should  be  mixed  with  red  to  make 
purple.  Let  other  pupils  make  yellow  lines,  and  show  how  green 
and  orange  are  produced.  Blue  lines  may  also  be  made,  and  the 
other  colors  drawn  across  them  to  show  the  formation  of  green 
and  purple. 

Take  care  to  continue  each  mode  of  illustration  until  all  the 
pupils  understand  it ;  but  also  take  care  to  change  the  form  of 
your  illustrations  of  each  fact  before  the  pupils  tire  of  it. 

Exercise  for  a  Large  Class. — The  following  method 
will  be  found  a  simple,  inexpensive,  and  efficient  means  of  fur- 
nishing additional  exercises  for  illustrating  the  formation  of  sec- 


EXERCISE  FOR  A  LARGE  CLASS.         101 

ondary  colors.     This  mode  is  the  more  valuable  because  it  gives 
each  pupil  an  opportunity  of  representing  the  fact  simultaneously : 

Procure  pieces  of  colored  tissue-paper  or  some  common  colored 
motto-papers,  each  about  three  by  four  inches.  Select  the  best 
specimens  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  Distribute  these  papers  among 
the  pupils,  giving  to  each  two  different  colors.  The  teacher  may 
now  take  pieces  of  yellow  and  of  blue  tissue-paper,  place  one  upon 
the  other,  and  hold  them  up  toward  the  window,  so  that  light 
may  be  seen  through  them.  Then  ask  the  children  who  have 
yellow  and  blue  papers  to  do  the  same,  and  to  tell  what  color 
they  see  through  the  yellow  and  blue  papers.  Request  the  pupils 
that  saw  the  green  color  to  stand  and  tell  what  colors  were  placed 
together  to  make  the  green. 

Proceed  in  a  similar  way  with  red  and  yellow  ;  afterward,  with 
red  and  blue.  Call  upon  each  pupil  to  look  through  his  colored 
papers,  and  to  tell  what  color  he  sees,  also  to  name  the  two  colors 
which  were  placed  together  to  be  looked  through.  Then  call 
upon  all  who  have  suitable  papers  to  show  how  orange  is  made ; 
then  call  upon  others  to  show  how  green  is  made ;  and  others, 
how  purple  is  made. 

Vary  this  exercise  by  asking  pupils  to  show  the  two  colors  that 
will  make  green  ;  then  orange  ;  then  purple. 

Make  Lessons  of  Your  Own. — If  you  will  receive 
these  as  illustrative  lessons  rather  than  methods  to  be 
invariably  followed,  and — after  becoming  familiar  with 
their  spirit  and  aim — will  then  devise  other  similar  ex- 
ercises having  the  same  end  in  view,  and  endeavor  to  bet- 
ter adapt  the  lessons  to  the  wants  of  your  own  pupils,  and 
especially  if  your  methods  of  conducting  the  lessons  shall 
furnish  the  pupils  abundant  opportunities  for  showing 
that  they  understand  the  subject,  success  will  attend  your 
instruction. 


102  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


REVIEW  OF  LESSONS  ON  COLOR. 

Naming  Colors  in  Groups.— Write  the  names  of  three 
reds;  of  three  yellows;  of  three  blues;  of  three  greens;  of  three 
orange  colors ;  of  three  purples, 

Dark  Colors. — Write  the  names  of  two  dark  reds  on  your  slate ; 
the  names  of  two  dark  yellows;  of  two  dark  blues;  of  a  dark  orange; 
of  a  dark  green  ;  of  a  dark  purple. 

Show  pieces  of  paper,  ribbon,  and  worsted  of  each  of  these  colors, 
and  require  the  pupils  to  name  the  color  shown. 

Light  Colors. — Write  on  your  slates  the  names  of  two  light 
reds;  of  two  light  blues;  of  two  light  yellows;  of  two  light  greens; 
of  two  light  purples.  Require  the  pupils  to  name  each  of  these  colors 
as  it  is  shown. 

Standard  Colors.  —  Write  the  name  of  the  color  that  best 
represents  each  of  the"  standard  colors  —  red,  yellow,  blue,  orange, 
green,  purple.  Require  the  pupils  to  select  each  of  these  standard 
colors  from  a  group  of  colors. 

Shades  Of  Colors.— Write  the  name  of  a  shade  of  each  of  the 
following  colors — red,  yellow,  orange,  green,  blue,  purple.  Let  the  pu- 
pils select  a  shade  of  each  color  named. 

Tints  of  Colors. — Write  the  name  of  a  tint  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing colors — red,  yellow,  orange,  blue,  green,  purple,  and  require 
the  pupils  to  select  each  tint  from  worsteds. 

What  pigment  will- produce  orange  when  mixed  with  yellow  f 
What  pigment  will  produce  green  when  mixed  with  yellow  ? 
What  pigment  will  produce  purple  when  mixed  with  blue  ? 
What  pigment  must  be  mixed  with  blue  to  produce  green  ? 
What  pigment  must  be  mixed  with  red  to  produce  purple? 
What  pigment  must  be  mixed  with  red  to  produce  orange  ? 

Write  the  names  of  each  of  these  groups  on  your  slate,  so  as  to 
represent  the  two  colors  which  must  be  mixed  to  produce  the  third 
color,  thus : 


MIXTURE  OF  COLORS.  103 


STATEMENTS   ABOUT   COLOR. 
FOR  THE  TEACHER. 

Mixture  Of  Colors. — Experiments  made  \vitli  the  mixture 
of  pigments  of  different  colors  led  Sir  David  Brewster  and  others 
to  believe  that  all  colors  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — those 
that  cannot  be  produced  by  mixing  colors,  and  those  that  can  be 
produced  by  the  mixture  of  two  or  more  colors.  It  was  found 
that  an  orange  color  could  be  produced  by  mixing  together  rSd 
and  yellow  pigments ;  green,  by  mixing  yellow  and  blue  pigments ; 
purple,  by  mixing  red  and  blue  pigments ;  also,  that  no  mixture 
of  pigments  could  be  made  that  would  produce  either  red,  yellow, 
or  blue.  In  consequence  of  these  results,  from  the  mixture  of 
pigments,  the  three  colors  which  could  not  be  produced  by  mix- 
ing— red,  yellow,  blue — were  called  primary  colors;  and  the  three 
colors  that  could  be  produced  by  mixing  two  of  the  primary  col- 
ors were  called  secondary  colors. 

Newton  having  shown  that  the  white  light  of  the  sun  may  be 
separated  into  the  seven  prismatic  colors  —  red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  indigo,  purple — it  was  assumed  that  sunlight  may  be 
resolved  into  the  three  primary  colors,  and  that  the  mixture  of 
colored  rays  of  light  would  produce  the  same  results  as  the  mixt- 
ure of  pigments.  But  more  recent' experiments  have  shown  that 
the  mixture  of  colored  rays  of  light  does  not,  in  all  cases,  produce 
the  same  colors  that  are  obtained  when  pigments  of  corresponding 
colors  are  mixed.  This  fact  may  be  easily  illustrated  by  placing 
a  blue  veil  upon  a  yellow  surface ;  or  a  yellow  veil  upon  a  blue 
surface,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  the  color  produced  is  grayish, 
and  not  a  green,  as  when  blue  and  yellow  pigments  are  mixed. 
This  fact  may  also  be  illustrated  by  drawing  a  group  of  fine  lines 
of  blue  upon  yellow  ground,  which  will  also  produce  a  grayish 
color.  If  fine  red  lines  be  drawn  in  a  like  manner  upon  a  blue 
ground,  the  surface  will  appear  purple  at  a  little  distance.  If  red 
lines  be  drawn  upon  a  yellow  surface,  an  orange  color  will  appear. 


104:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

In  explanation  of  the  foregoing  facts,  the  scientists  say  that 
colors  are  not  mixed  by  the  mixture  of 'pigments;  and  that  in 
the  case  of  pigments  the  mixing  takes  place  upon  the  palette,  while 
with  colors  of  light,  as  with  the  colored  veils  and  the  colored 
lines,  the  mixture  takes  place  in  the  eye.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  mixture  of  pigments  and  the  mixture  of  colors  of  light  lead 
to  results  which  are  nearly  identical,  as  that  of  red  and  yellow,  in 
producing  orange  ;  and  that  of  red  and  blue,  in  producing  purple. 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  manufacturers  to  produce  mixed 
colors  by  twisting  together  differently  colored  threads,  and  weav- 
ing the  yarn  thus  formed  into  the  fabric,  so  as  to  make  it,  at  the 
distance  at  which  it  will  usually  be  seen,  appear  of  the  color 
desired. 

Colors  are  also  mixed  in  the  eye  by  the  persistence  of  impres- 
sions. You  may  understand  the  meaning  of  this  term  by  recall- 
ing the  fact  that  a  stick  with  a  coal  of  fire  at  one  end  may  be 
swung  around  so  rapidly  as  to  produce  the  appearance  of  a  circle 
of  fire.  This  may  be  illustrated,  also,  by  painting  a  red  spot  upon 
a  black  disk,  and  revolving  it  rapidly,  when  a  faint  red  ring  will 
appear.  This  shows  that  the  impressions  of  light  and  color,  made 
upon  the  retina  of  the  eye,  do  not  cease  instantly  after  the  object 
that  produces  the  impression  is  removed.  It  is  owing  to  this  fact 
that  the  rotating  color,  and  the  coal  of  fire,  produce  the  circular 
appearance. 

The  mixture  of  colors  by  persistence  of  impressions  may  be  illus- 
trated by  means  of  rotating  disks,  and  also  by  color-tops. 

Procure  circular  disks,  each  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  made 
of  very  thin  boards.  Let  each  disk  be  fastened  on  one  end  of  an 
axle,  or  shaft,  which  is  fitted  in  two  upright  standards,  so  that  the 
disk  can  be  made  to  revolve  rapidly.  On  one  disk  paint  red  and 
yellow,  in  the  form  of  sectors  of  nearly  equal  size,  and  so  arranged 
that  each  color  alternates  with  the  other.  Now,  by  pulling  the 
cord,  which  is  wound  around  the  shaft,  the  disk  is  made  to  revolve 
rapidly,  and  the  two  colors  are  so  blended  by  the  motion  that  you 
can  distinguish  neither  the  red  nor  yellow,  but  in  the  place  of 
these  you  will  see  orange,  which  is  a  secondary  color. 

On  another  disk  paint,  in  sectors,  red  and  blue,  with  the  blue 


MIXTURE  OF  COLORS.  105 

sectors  covering  about  two-thirds  of  the  disk,  and  the  red  one- 
third.  By  revolving  this  disk  rapidly,  these  two  colors,  red  and 
blue,  blend  together,  and  you  will  see  in  their  place  one  color,  a 
purple,  which  is  another  secondary.  In  both  of  these  cases  the 
mixture  of  the  colors  takes  place  in  the  eye. 

On  a  third  disk  paint  sectors  of  yellow  and  blue,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  blue  sectors  to  one  yellow  one.  Now,  from  what  you 
have  already  observed,  as  the  disks  revolved  which  contained  other 
colors,  you  naturally  will  expect  to  see  green  when  this  disk  re- 
volves. Please  observe  the  result :  You  will  see  on  this  revolving 
disk  neither  blue,  nor  yellow,  nor  green,  but  a  grayish  color,  sim- 
ilar to  that  produced  with  the  blue  and  yellow  veils,  or  with  the 
blue  lines  upon  a  yellow  surface. 

Varied  and  numerous  experiments  have  been  made  in  attempts 
to  produce  green  by  the  mixture  of  colors  in  the  eye,  or  by  the 
mixture  of  colored  rays  of  light,  but  without  success ;  therefore, 
scientists  tell  us  that  green  may  be  classed  with  the  primary  colors. 
In  reality,  all  the  colors  into  which  sunlight  can  be  resolved  by 
the  spectrum  may  be  called  primary  colors.  And  white  light 
may  be  called  a  mixed  color. 

As  far  as  pertains  to  the  common  experiences  of  artists,  paint- 
ers, and  those  who  use  colors  in  pigments,  or  paints,  red,  yellow, 
and  blue  may  be  regarded  as  primary  colors,  and  orange,  green, 
and  purple  as  secondary  colors.  Artists  sometimes  divide  colors 
into  three  groups — primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary  ;  the  second- 
ary colors  being  those  formed  by  the  mixture  of  two  of  the  pri- 
maries;  while  a  tertiary  color  is  one  produced  by  the  mixture  of 
two  of  the  secondary  colors.  And,  inasmuch  as  these  groups  or 
classes  furnish  interesting  exercises  for  making  the  pupils  familiar 
with  the  different  colors,  they  may  be  appropriately,  used  in  giving 
color  lessons;  yet,  these  classes  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  much 
importance  in  matters  pertaining  to  colored  rays  of  light. 

5* 


106 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


HARMONY   IN  COLORS. 


KED. 


Purple, 


BLUE. 


Orange. 


YELLOW. 


Purple. 


Olive 


Green. 


DIAGBAMS  OF  HARMONIZING   COLOBS. 


Orange. 


Citrine. 


THE  above  diagrams  will  aid  in  understanding  and  remember- 
ing the  harmonizing  colors,  and  the  laws  that  govern  them.  It 
will  be  seen  in  the  first  of  these  diagrams  that  the  name  of  the 
secondary,  produced  by  the  combination  of  two  primary  colors,  is 
placed  at  the  angle  between  the  two  colors  that  produce  it,  and 
at  the  angle  of  the  hexagon  opposite  the  primary  color  with  which 
it  harmonizes. 

The  same  plan  of  arrangement  may  be  seen  in  the  second  dia- 
gram, showing  the  two  secondaries  that  produce  a  tertiary  color, 
and  the  secondary  at  the  opposite  angle,  which  harmonizes  with  it. 

It  may  be  seen  by  the  preceding  diagrams  that  primary  colors 
harmonize  with  secondary  colors,  also  that  secondary  colors  har- 
monize with  tertiary  colors.  It  may  be  added  that  the  shades 
and  tints  of  these  colors  harmonize  also.  But  in  this  connection 
it  should  be  remembered  that  as  one  of  the  primary  colors  loses 
its  purity  by  the  mixture  of  a  little  of  either  of  the  other  colors, 
its  complementary  must  also  contain  some  of  the  remaining  pri- 
mary. .  Thus,  if  the  red  contains  a  little  yellow,  tending  toward  a 
scarlet  or  vermilion,  the  green,  to  be  truly  complementary,  should 
contain  more  blue,  or  be  a  bluish  green.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  red  contains  blue  and  tends  toward  a  crimson,  the  green 
should  contain  more  yellow,  or  be  a  yellowish  green. 


EFFECTS  BY  CONTRAST   OF  COLORS.  107 

There  is  also  a  principle  of  contrast  existing  between  colors 
which  harmonize.  Thus  yellow,  which  is  of  all  colors  the  nearest 
to  light,  harmonizes  with  purple,  the  darkest  of  the  three  regular 
secondary  hues.  Red,  the  most  positive  and  exciting  of  colors, 
harmonizes  with  green,  which  is  the  most  soothing  and  grateful 
to  the  eye.  Again,  blue  is  the  coldest  and  most  retiring  of  col- 
ors; it  harmonizes  with  orange,  which  is  the  warmest  and  most 
advancing. 

The  secondary  color  which  harmonizes  with  a  given  primary 
is  sometimes  called  the  complementary,  or  accidental,  or  the  con- 
trasting color  of  that  primary:  The  tertiary  colors  stand  in  the 
same  relation  to  the  secondaries  that  the  secondaries  do  to  the 
primary  colors;  and  they  are  also  called  complementary  colors 
when  they  harmonize  with  the  secondary  colors. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  combination  of  those  colors 
•which  are  the  constituents  of  white  light  are  always  harmonious, 
beautiful,  and  refreshing ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  that  those  colors 
which  contain  only  a  part  of  the  constituents  of  white  light,  as 
red  and  yellow,  red  and  blue,  or  yellow  and  blue,  when  placed  by 
the  side  of  each  other,  are  most  decidedly  inharmonious,  and  are 
held  as  offensive  to  taste  and  unrefreshing  to  the  eye.  However, 
this  discord  may  be  partially  relieved  by  bringing  in  a  third  color 
which  is  a  harmonic  to  either  of  the  other  two ;  thus,  red  and 
yellow  are  disharmonic,  but  they  may  be  harmonized  by  the  in- 
troduction of  green.  These  three  colors  are  often  seen  harmoni- 
ously blended  in  the  variegated  foliage  with  which  autumn  clothes 
our  forests. 

Effects  by  Contrast  of  Colors. — When  two  harmoniz- 
ing colors  are  placed  side  by  side,  each  color  not  only  reflects  its 
own  proper  hue,  but  also  some  of  its  own  complementary  rays,  thus 
mutually  enriching  each  other.  When  two  colors  which  are  in- 
harmonious are  placed  side  by  side,  the  juxtaposition  renders  them 
still  more  inharmonious  from  the  same  law  of  contrast.  If  a  blue 
is  placed  by  the  side  of  a  purple,  the  blue  is  apparently  darkened 
in  shade,  and  becomes  greenish  from  the  effects  of  the  comple- 
mentary yellow  rays  given  out  by  the  purple ;  while  the  purple  is 


108  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

injured  by  the  reflection  of  the  complementary  orange  rays  from 
the  surface  of  the  blue  adjoining  it,  which  inclines  the  purple 
toward  a  russet  hue.  But  these  effects  are  greatly  modified  by 
dividing  the  colors  from  each  other  by  white. 

A  color  is  enriched  by  contrasting  it  with  a  white  ground ;  and 
weakened  by  contrasting  it  with  a  black  ground. 

Grays  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  primary  colors  when  placed 
in  juxtaposition  with  them.  Arrangements  of  the  primaries  with 
black  are  agreeable. 

When  two  tints  of  the  same  color  are  placed  together,  the  light 
tint  will  appear  still  lighter,  and  the  dark  tint  still  darker. 

Phenomena  of  Vision.  —  Simple  experiments  may  be 
made  with  colored  wafers,  or  with  small  pieces  of  colored  paper 
or  ribbon,  illustrating  the  curious  relations  of  those  colors  which 
are  complementary  to  each  other. 

If  a  red  wafer  be  placed  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and  the 
eyes  be  steadily  directed  to  it,  by-and-by  it  will  appear  to  be  en- 
circled with  a  fringe  of  green ;  now,  if  the  wafer  be  suddenly 
removed,  there  will  appear  in  its  place,  for  a  short  time,  a  green 
spectrum  of  the  form  of  the  wafer.  This  ocular  spectrum  grad- 
ually fades  away  as  the  nerves  of  the  eye,  which  had  become  fa- 
tigued with  looking  at  the  color  of  the  wafer,  recover  their  tone. 
If  the  wafer  be  green,  the  spectrum  will  appear  red ;  if  the  wafer 
be  yellow,  the  spectrum  will  be  purple.  Whatever  the  color  of 
the  object,  the  ocular  spectrum  will  have  its  harmonic  or  com- 
plementary color. 

In  a  like  manner,  if  we  look  at  the  sun  when  low  in  the  hori- 
zon and  red,  on  turning  the  eyes  away  there  will  float  before 
the  vision  an  ocular  spectrum  of  the  form  of  the  sun,  but  of  a 
greenish  color. 

The  reason  of  these  curious  effects  of  color  may  be  explained 
by  the  supposition  that  the  part  of  the  retina  on  which  the  col- 
ored image  fell  had  become  fatigued  by  looking  intently  at  one 
color,  and  thereby  rendered  insensible  to  it,  or  unable  to  receive 
more  rays  of  that  color,  so  that,  when  it  is  removed,  the  other 
colors  necessary  to  produce  white  light,  with  the  color  under  ob- 


PHENOMENA  OF  VISION.  109 

servation,  immediately  unite  with  it,  forming  the  complementary 
color  seen  in  the  ocular  spectrum,  thus  effecting  the  restoration 
of  the  exhausted  portion  of  the  retina  to  its  normal  condition. 

There  is  another  familiar  phenomenon  connected  with  the  laws 
of  vision  on  which  the  harmony  of  colors  is  based.  When  we 
examine,  for  a  length  of  time,  a  minute  object  lying  on  a  differ- 
ent colored  surface,  as  a  small  dark  spot  on  white  paper  or  in  a 
distant  field,  the  object  will  suddenly  disappear.  The  same  re- 
sult ensues  when  we  strain  the  eye  to  perceive  a  distant  object 
of  a  small  size.  After  looking  at  it  steadily  for  some  time,  the 
more  intently  we  try  to  observe  it  the  more  sure  is  it  to  elude 
our  vision.  The  sportsman,  in  endeavoring  to  follow  his  game 
and  mark  the  spot  where  it  alights,  is  almost  certain  to  be  baffled 
by  this  physiological  law  of  sight. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  point  of  our  best  vision  is 
directly  in  the  centre  of  the  retina,  and  extends  over  but  a  small 
space ;  that  the  perception  of  form  diminishes  rapidly  from  the 
centre  of  the  pupil  outward  in  all  directions ;  that  around  the 
best  point  of  vision  we  perceive  red,  green,  and  purple;  that  out- 
side of  this  circle  or  belt  we  perceive  only  green  and  purple,  and 
that  beyond  this  belt  we  perceive  only  blue  or  violet;  and  then 
consider  these  facts  in  connection  with  the  laws  of  harmony  of 
colors,  and  the  phenomena  of  vision  may  be  more  easily  under- 
stood. 

These  peculiarities  of  vision  might  have  proved  very  embar- 
rassing to  us  had  it  not  been  provided  that  for  clear  and  distinct 
sight  the  eye  need  not  rest  long  upon  the  object.  A  searching 
motion  of  the  eye,  with  only  a  brief  dwelling  upon  the  object, 
gives  clearest  vision. 


110  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


COLOR-BLINDNESS. 

COLOR -BLINDNESS  is  a  subject  about  which  little  was 
known  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century ;  and 
more  facts  have  been  discovered  in  relation  to  its  nature, 
extent,  and  dangers  within  the  past  thirty  years  than  were 
previously  known  concerning  it.  During  the  past  five 
years  it  has  assumed  great  importance  in  connection  with 
the  management  of  railroads,  marine  service,  manufacto- 
ries, etc.  Both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States  spe- 
cial attention  has  been  given  to  the  detection  of  color- 
blindness among  railroad  employes,  with  a  view  to  protect 
travellers  from  danger  and  companies  from  loss  by  acci- 
dents. Not  only  have  railway  companies  instituted  exam- 
inations of  their  engineers,  conductors,  brakemen,  switch- 
men, flagmen,  etc.,  but  several  of  the  State  Legislatures 
have  passed  laws  requiring  the  railroad  companies  to 
make  the  tests  necessary  to  determine  whether  or  not 
their  employes  are  defective  in  distinguishing  the  colors 
used  as  signals ;  and  fines  have  been  fixed  for  employing 
any  person  found  to  be  thus  defective  in  visual  power. 

This  matter  has  also  received  special  attention  from 
some  of  the  members  of  the  medical  profession,  who  have 
made  extensive  examinations  to  determine  the  nature  and 
extent  of  color-blindness.  Dr.  B.  Joy  Jeffries,  of  Boston, 
has  examined  instructors  and  students  in  colleges  and  art- 
schools,  and  boys  in  high  and  grammar  schools,  during 
the  past  two  or  three  years,  to  the  number  of  more  than 
ten  thousand  persons.  In  this  number  he  found  nearly 
three  hundred  who  were  red-Wind,  seventy-five  who  were 
green -blind,  and  over  four  hundred  totally  color-blind. 
Dr.  Jeffries  also  examined  about  eight  thousand  female 


NATURE   OF  COLOR-BLINDNESS.  Ill 

teachers,  students,  and  pupils  in  normal  schools,  high- 
schools,  and  grammar-schools,  and  among  these  he  found 
one  who  was  red-Hind,  one  who  was  green-blind,  and  four 
who  were  totally  color-Hind.  Examinations  made  of  fe- 
males in  Europe  show  also  that  the  proportion  of  color- 
blind females  is  very  small,  as  compared  with  that  of 
males.  It  is  probable  that  the  early  exercise  of  the  sense 
of  color  by  girls,  and  their  extensive  practice  in  atten- 
tion to  colors  during  the  experiences  of  life,  develop  the 
color-perception  so  completely  in  them  as  to  overcome 
those  deficiencies  that  are  not  of  a  physical  nature ;  while 
in  the  case  of  boys,  who  naturally  give  but  little  attention 
to  color,  the  color-perception  remains  but  partially  devel- 
oped, and  feeble. 

Dr.  Favre,  of  France,  examined  about  six  thousand  per- 
sons who  were  candidates  for  railroad  work,  and  found 
more  than  sixty  red-blind.  He  also  examined  seven  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  officers  and  sailors,  among  whom  he 
found  seventy-Jive  color-blind ;  and  nineteen  of  these  con- 
founded red  with  green.  Similar  results  have  been  found 
by  examinations  made  by  other  persons,  in  England, 
Holland,  Germany,  Norway,  Sweden,  Austria,  Italy,  and 
Switzerland. 

As  a  means  of  lessening  the  danger  from  mistakes  in 
distinguishing  colored  signals,  several  railroads,  among 
them  the  elevated  roads  of  New  York  city,  have  adopted 
a  system  of  combined  /Signals  of  Color  and  Signals  of 
Form,  so  that  one  signal  shall  verify  the  other. 

Nature  of  Color-blindness.  —  The  sense  of  seeing 
appears  to  possess  two  distinct  powers  of  perception  : 
these  may  be  called  form-perception,  or  the  power  to  per- 
ceive different  forms ;  and  color-perception,  or  the  power 
to  perceive  different  colors.  In  some  persons  the  power 
to  perceive  colors  is  absolutely  wanting.  To  such  indi- 


112  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

viduals  all  colors  appear  only  as  different  degrees  of  dark- 
ness and  lightness.  This  condition  is  called  total  color- 
blindness. In  some  persons  the  power  to  perceive  one 
color — either  a  red,  green,  or  violet — is  wanting.  This  is 
known  as  partial  color-blindness,  and  is  divided  into  three 
kinds,  viz. : 

Red-blindness — or  inability  to  perceive  red,  mistaking  it 
for  green'  and  the  seeing  of  all  red  colors  much  darker 
than  they  are;  also  confounding  reds  with  grays. 

Green-blindness — or  inability  to  perceive  green,  mistak- 
ing it  for  red;  and  the  seeing  of  all  green  colors  much 
lighter  than  they  are',  also  confounding  greens  with  grays. 

Violet-blindness — or  inability  to  perceive  motet,  or  bluish 
purple,  mistaking  red  and  orange  for  purple.  This  kind 
is  seldom  found. 

Tests  for  Color-blindness. — The  method  of  testing  for 
color-blindness  now  most  commonly  used,  because  of  its  sim- 
plicity and  certainty,  was  devised  by  Professor  Holmgren,  of 
Sweden.  The  materials  used  are  chiefly  Berlin  worsteds.  Col- 
ored silks,  papers,  and  other  materials  may  be  used;  but  the  wors- 
teds are  best,  because  these  can  be  procured  in  all  possible  colors 
and  tones  or  degrees  of  color. 

The  Colors  used  for  this  purpose  should  include  excellent 
samples  of  red,  orange,  yellow,  yelloiv-green,  pure-green,  blue-green, 
blue,  violet,  purple,  pink,  brown,  gray,  with  at  least  five  gradations 
of  each  color,  from  very  light  to  very  dark.  Greens  and  grays, 
and  the  pale-gray  browns,  yellows,  reds,  and  pinks,  must  be  well 
represented. 

Method  of  Testing.  —  Place  the  worsteds  on  a  white  cotton 
cloth  upon  a  table  in  a  good  light.  Lay  a  skein  of  the  color 
desired  for  the  test  far  enough  aside  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  other  worsteds,  and  require  the  person  to  be  examined  to 
select  other  skeins  that  resemble  that,  and  place  them  by  the  side 
of  it.  The  one  examined  may  be  told  to  select  a  color  like  the 


TESTS  FOR  COLOR-BLINDNESS.  113 

test-color,  also  two  or  three  lighter  and  one  or  two  darker  ones. 
The  individual's  ability  to  perceive  color  is  determined  by  the 
manner  in  which  this  task  is  performed. 

The  principle  of  the  test  is  to  require  the  selection  of  one  color 
from  many  colors,  and  to  select  it  by  its  resemblance,  and  not  by 
its  name.  It  is  better  not  to  name  the  colors  during  the  test. 
The  individual  examined  should  depend  entirely  upon  his  ability 
to  perceive  and  distinguish  resemblances  and  differences  in  colors. 
Speak  of  the  color  laid  aside  as  the  test-color ;  the  other  worsteds 
may  be  called  the  "  colors  of  confusion"  or  simply  the  bunch  of 
worsteds. 

First  Test. — In  testing  for  color-blindness  use  the  green  test- 
color  first.  Select  a  pure  green,  one  that  is  about  midway  be- 
tween the  lightest  and  darkest  grades  of  the  greens.  Emerald- 
green,  or  the  color  of  Paris-green,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  ap- 
propriate color  for  this  purpose.  Do  not  select  a  yellowish  green. 
The  person  examined  should  be  told  to  find  all  the  colors  that 
resemble  the  test-color,  including  those  that  are  darker  and  those 
that  are  lighter  than  the  test-color,  and  to  place  them  by  the  side 
of  it.  Carefully  observe  what  colors  are  chosen,  and  the  mistakes 
made,  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  color-blindness  exists. 

If  the  person  chooses  the  pale  colors,  as  light  grays,  with  a  buff, 
pink,  yellow,  brownish,  or  greenish  tint  to  match  the  green  test- 
color,  or  if  he  chooses  a  reddish  purple  or  a  gray  for  the  same 
purpose,  he  may  be  considered  color-blind. 

Second  Test. — As  a  second  test  for  color-blindness  use  a  light 
purple  as  a  test-color — one  that  is  midway  between  the  lightest 
and  darkest  blue-purple,  and  inclining  toward  a  violet,  or  bluish 
purple.  If  the  colors  selected  to  match  this  by  the  one  who  ap- 
peared to  be  color-blind  by  the  first  test  are  all  purple,  including 
lighter  and  darker  grades,  he  is  not  fully  color-blind. 

Red-blind. — If  the  person  selects  a  dark  blue  or  a  violet  to 
match  the  purple  test-color,  he  is  red-blind.  If  he  selects  dark 
green,  brown,  or  gray  to  match  a  red  test-color,  he  is  red-blind. 
Take  the  color  known  as  vermilion  as  the  red  test-color. 

Should  the  person  select  blue,  yellow,  or  other  light  colors  to 


114  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

match  red,  it  is  evidence  of  stupidity,  or  want  of  developed 
knowledge  of  color,  and  not  of  red-blindness.  The  red -blind 
never  select  the  colors  chosen  by  the  green-blind. 

Green-blind. — If  the  person  selects  a  bluish  green  or  a  pur- 
plish gray  to  match  the  purple  test-color,  he  is  green-blind.  The 
green-blind  often  place  a  bright  violet  or  a  blue  with  the  green 
test-color.  If  he  selects  lighter  greens  or  browns  to  match  a  red 
test-color,  he  is  green-blind.  The  green-blind  never  select  the  col- 
ors taken  by  the  red-blind. 

Importance  of  this  Subject.* — The  great  importance 
of  attention  to  this  subject  of  color-blindness  will  be  apparent 
when  it  is  remembered  that  red,  green,  and  white  are  the  colors 
used  on  railroads  as  signals  of  danger,  caution,  and  safety ;  and 
also  when  it  is  remembered  that  success  in  many  of  the  avoca- 
tions of  life  depends  upon  a  normal  condition  of  the  perception 
of  color,  and  the  ability  to  distinguish  colors  which  comes  from 
the  exercise  of  this  visual  power.  By  means  of  proper  instruc- 
tion in  school,  which  shall  comprise  more  experience  in  'matching 
colors  than  in  learning  their  names,  the  great  majority  of  cases  of 
defective  visual  power  to  perceive  colors  would  be  detected  and 
pointed  out  to  the  pupils,  and  warning  given  as  to  the  impro- 
priety of  engaging  in  any  avocation  for  life  in  which  the  ability 
to  perceive  and  distinguish  colors  formed  a  part  of  the  needed 
qualifications  for  success. 

Colors  as  Signals. — Colored  flags  and  colored  lights  are 
universally  used  as  signals.  The  colors  most  commonly  employed 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  signification  of  each,  are  given  below  : 

Red — a  danger-signal.  A  red  flag  by  day  or  a  red  light  by 
night  is  a  signal  of  danger.  On  a  railroad,  a  red  flag  or  a  red 
light  swung  or  waved  over  the  track  signifies,  "  Danger — stop." 
If  a  red  flag  or  a  red  light  is  stuck  up  by  the  side  of  a  railroad 
it  signifies,  "  Danger  on  the  track  ahead."  If  a  red  flag  is  car- 
ried unfurled  on  an  engine  it  signifies,  "Another  engine  on  its 

*  Those  who  desire  more  extended  information  relative  to  color-blindness, 
methods  of  testing  for  it,  etc.,  are  referred  to  Color-blindness:  its  Dangers 
and  its  Detection,  by  Dr.  B.  Joy  Jeffries  (Houghton,  Osgood  &  Co.,  Boston). 


COLORS  AS  SIGNALS  AND  AS  EMBLEMS.  115 

way,  following."  When  a  red  flag  is  hoisted  at  a  railway-station 
it  signifies,  "  Stop  at  this  station." 

The  Signal  Service — weather  bureau — displays  a  red  flag  with 
a  black  centre  by  day,  or  a  red  light  by  night,  as  the  signal  that 
dangerous  weather  or  a  storm  is  approaching. 

Green — a  caution-signal.  A  green  flag  by  day  or  green  light 
by  night  is  a  signal  of  caution.  On  a  railway,  green  signifies, 
"  Travel  slowly."  It  is  more  a  signal  of  safety  than  of  danger. 

"White — a  safety-signal.  A  white  flag  by  day  or  a  white  light 
by  night  is  a  signal  of  safety.  To  an  engineer  or  conductor  of  a 
railway-train  it  means,  "All  right — go  ahead." 

The  white  flag  is  a  token  of  peace.  In  war  it  signifies  a  desire 
to  stop  hostilities,  and  a  request  for  a  conference.  It  is  called  a 
flag  of  truce. 

Black.  —  A  Hack  flag  on  a  ship  denotes  piracy.  In  war  it 
is  sometimes  hoisted  to  signify  that  no  quarter  will  be  given  or 
taken  ;  it  denotes  death  to  all. 

Yellow. — A  yellow  flag  in  a  harbor  denotes  quarantine — a 
hospital.  It  indicates  the  surgeon's  head-quarters  in  the  army. 

Marine  Signals. — By  a  general  law  of  nations  lights  must 
be  carried  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  to  indicate  the  position  and 
course  of  a  ship  at  night.  For  this  purpose  the  colors  chosen  are 
a  bright  white  light  carried  at  the  head  of  the  foremast,  a  green 
light  suspended  on  the  starboard  (right)  side,  and  a  red  light  on 
the  port  (left)  side.  These  lights  are  so  placed  that  when  all  of 
them  can  be  seen  the  vessel  is  directly  ahead,  and  its  direction 
can  be  determined  by  observing  on  which  side  the  red  and  green 
lights  appear. 

Colors  as  Emblems. — Every  passion  and  emotion  of  the 
mind  has  its  appropriate  tint  in  colors.  Color  influences  anger, 
deepens  sadness,  warms  love,  and  brightens  joy. 

Black  is  an  emblem  of  sorrow  and  mourning. 

White  is  an  emblem  of  innocence,  peace,  purity. 

Red  signifies  defiance.     It  is  an  emblem  of  war.     It  stimulates 


116  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

courage,  anger,  fierceness.     It  excites  the  anger  of  the  turkey, 
and  provokes  the  madness  of  the  bull. 

Blue  is  an  emblem  of.  faith.  The  blue  sky  above  reminds  of 
the  realms  beyond,  and  enkindles  faith  in  God's  promises. 

Yellow  is  symbolic  of  joy.  The  sensible  effects  of  yellow  are 
gay  and  enlivening.  The  yellow  harvest  crowns  the  year,  and 
gives  joy  to  the  husbandman. 

Orange  is  symbolic  of  richness. 

Green  is  symbolic  of  youth  and  vigor.    It  is  an  emblem  of  hope. 

Purple  is  an  emblem  of  royalty.  The  sensible  effects  of  pur- 
ple are  those  of  grandeur,  stateliness,  dignity. 

Brown  in  its  effects  is  sedate,  stable. 

Gray  indicates  humility. 

Effects  of  Color  on  Complexion. — If  the  complexion 
is  that  of  a  blonde,  sky-blue,  the  complement  of  a  pale  orange, 
enriches  it. 

Green  tends  to  add  a  ruddy  tint  to  a  light  complexion ;  but 
it  changes  the  orange  hue  of  a  brunette  to  a  brick-red  color. 

Yellow  and  Orange  produce  a  pleasing  effect  on  the  brunette 
complexion. 

"White  has  a  good  effect  upon  light  complexions;  but  dark 
complexions  appear  worse  by  its  strong  contrast. 

Black  makes  the  complexion  appear  lighter. 

The  prevailing  color  of  the  complexion  may  be  either  height- 
ened or  lowered  by  the  dress  worn.  It  is  heightened  by  white 
drapery,  and  lowered  by  black  drapery.  Green  drapery  heightens 
a  rosy  complexion,  and  adds  more  red  to  the  orange  complexion. 

A  light-blue  drapery  heightens  a  pale  orange  or  blonde  com- 
plexion. 

A  deep-red  drapery  lowers  the  tint  of  a  rosy  complexion ;  and 
a  deep  orange  lowers  the  tint  of  an  orange  complexion. 

A  delicate  green  is  favorable  to  all  fair  complexions  that  are 
deficient  in  rose. 


ADVANCED   LESSONS  ON   COLOR.  117 


ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  COLOR. 

BY  carefully  observing  the  effects  produced  upon  the  eyes, 
while  looking  steadily  at  different  colors,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  sensation  becomes  unpleasant  when  the  eyes  are  directed  to 
a  single  color  for  a  long  time ;  also  that  relief  is  experienced 
when  another  color  is  placed  before  them.  Jt  will  be  found  that 
white  light  is  more  agreeable  to  the  eye,  in  its  normal  condition, 
than  any  colored  light.  And  in  order  to  afford  agreeable  sensa- 
tions, there  must  be  white  light  (which  contains  all  the  colors  of 
the  spectrum  mixed  together),  or  there  must  be  present  two  col- 
ors which  would  produce  white  if  mixed  together. 

Complementary  Colors  are  those  two  colors  which,  united,  con- 
tain the  three  primary  colors;  or  which,  when  mixed,  would  pro- 
duce a  whitish  color. 

When  pigments  are  used  in  the  mixing  of  colors,  the  following 
pairs  of  colors  are  the  complements  of  each  other:  red  and  green; 
yellow  and  purple;  blue  and  orange. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  each  pair  one  of  the  colors  named 
contains  the  two  primary  colors  which,  united  with  the  other 
color  of  the  pair,  furnish  the  three  primary  colors  necessary  to 
produce  white. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  numerous  experiments  in  mixing 
colored  rays  of  light,  colored  lines,  and  other  means  by  which 
the  colors  are  mixed  in  the  eye,  that  each  color  in  the  following 
list  complements  the  one  opposite  in  the  other  column  : 

Red  complements  ....  Bluish  green. 

Orange      "  ....   Turquoise  blue. 

Yellow      "  ....   Ultramarine  blue. 

Green  ....  Purplish  red. 

Violet  ....  Yellowish  green. 

Similar  modifications,  from   dark  to  light,  and  pale,  may  be 


118  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

made  in  the  colors  of  each  of  these  pairs,  and  still  they  will  com- 
plement each  other.  If  the  red  be  changed  from  a  carmine  to  a 
scarlet,  the  complementary  green  will  contain  more  blue.  Even 
a  slight  change  in  the  hue  of  one  color  renders  it  necessary  that 
a  considerable  change  be  made  in  the  hue  of  its  complementary 
color. 

How  to  find  Complementary  Colors.  —  Experiments  made 
with  blue  lines  upon  a  yellow  surface,  with  a  blue  veil  on  a  yel- 
low surface,  also  with  colors  on  revolving  disks,  and  by  mixing 
pigments,  will  indicate,  by  the  production  of  a  grayish  ivhite  col- 
or, colors  that  complement  each  other.  But  the  following  are 
more  simple  experiments  that  may  be  easily  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  what  color  is  a  complement  of  any  given 
color.  Take  colored  wafers,  or  pieces  of  colored  paper,  silk,  or 
some  other  material,  place  a  single  one  upon  a  black  surface  in 
a  strong  light,  and  look  at  it  steadily  for  a  few  seconds,  then 
suddenly  push  away  the  colored  object,  keeping  the  eye  fixed 
upon  the  spot,  and  the  complement  of  the  color  thus  looked  at 
will  appear  in  its  place.  If  the  object  looked  at  be  red,  the  after- 
image will  be  bluish  green ;  if  orange,  the  image  will  be  blue;  if 
yellow,  the  image  will  be  dark  blue  or  indigo  ;  if  green,  the  image 
will  be  purplish  red  ;  if  violet,  the  image  will  be  yellowish  green. 

Colors  which  are  complements  of  each  other  will  harmonize 
when  placed  together.  In  order  to  determine  whether  a  color 
will  harmonize,  or  appear  well  if  placed  with  another,  we  may 
ascertain  whether  it  is  a  complement  of  that  color  by  a  process 
similar  to  that  described  above ;  or  we  must  decide  whether  the 
two  colors  contain  those  that  produce  white. 

Harmony  of  Colors. — From  what  has  been  said  concern- 
ing complementary  colors,  it  will  be  readily  seen  how  we  may 
ascertain  which  are  harmonic  colors,  as  these  are  governed  by  the 
same  laws  as  the  complementary  colors.  It  will  also  appear  that 
a  true  harmony  of  colors  is  based  upon  something  more  certain 
and  permanent  than  the  caprice  of  fashion,  or  that  which  is  com- 
monly called  "  taste,"  with  its  liability  to  become  perverted. 

The  laws  of  harmony  of  colors  ever  remain  the  same,  yet-  the 


MATERIALS  FOR  LESSONS  ON  COLOR.  119 

indefinite  modifications  of  colors  allow  a  corresponding  variety  in 
their  harmonious  arrangements.* 

Harmony  of  colors  may  be  properly  classed  with  useful  knowl- 
edge, since  it  enters  into  works  of  art,  manufactures,  decorations 
of  dwellings,  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  materials  of  dress, 
and  into  various  matters  of  daily  life.  It  is  also  both  useful  and 
interesting  as  a  matter  of  instruction.  But  to  be  most  practically 
useful,  the  instruction  should  consist  chiefly  of  exercises  for  train- 
ing the  pupils  to  discriminate  when  the  given  colors  harmonize, 
rather  than  of  those  requiring  the  mere  memory  of  facts  as  to 
which  colors  do  appear  well  together.  These  lessons  will  be  more 
generally  useful  to  girls  than  to  boys ;'  and  girls  will  doubtless 
take  the  most  interest  in  them. 

It  now  remains  to  describe  how  lessons  in  harmony  of  colors 
may  be  given. 

Materials  for  Lessons. — For  illustrating  harmony  of  col- 
ors, procure  a  variety  of  colored  papers,  pieces  of  silk,  worsteds, 
etc.,  of  different  shades  and  hues,  as  dark  red,  purplish  red,  light 
red,  vermilion,  orange,  yellow,  yellowish  green,  green,  bluish  green, 
blue,  turquoise  blue,  ultramarine,  purple,  light  purple,  violet,  light 
violet,  brown,  russet,  citrine,  olive,  gray,  black,  white,  etc. 

The  colored  papers  may  be  cut  in  squares  of  two  sizes — two 
inches  and  one  inch.  Place  a  one-inch  red  square  on  a  two-inch 
green  one,  and  a  one-inch  green  square  on  a  two-inch  red  one. 
Attach  the  smaller  square  to  the  centre  of  the  larger  one  with 
gum,  so  as  to  allow  the  color  of  the  larger  square  to  show  around 
the  smaller  one.  Arrange  other  pairs  of  complementary  colors 
in  the  same  way.  Also,  arrange  pairs  of  colors  that  are  not  com- 
plementary in  a  similar  manner. 

*  Those  who  desire  to  obtain  further  information  upon  this  subject,  and 
upon  the  Science  of  Colors  as  applied  to  arts  and  manufactures,  may  find 
recent  authority  in  The  Theory  of  Color,  by  Dr.  Von  Bezold,  translated  by  S. 
R.  Koehler,  with  illustrations  (L.  Prang  &  Co.,  Boston). 


120  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


LESSONS  IN  HARMONY  OF  COLORS. 

THE  following  lessons  are  given  as  illustrations  of  methods 
that  may  be  used,  but  not  to  be  copied,  or  literally  followed  by 

the  teacher : 

I. 

Object. — To  lead  the  pupil  to  simple  perceptions  of 
harmony  and  of  discord  in  colors. 

Place  before  the  pupils,  or,  better  still,  in  the  hands  of  each 
one,  a  pair  of  complementary  colors,  prepared  as  before  described, 
and  request  them  to  notice  whether  the  two  colors  thus  repre- 
sented look  well  together. 

Then  let  the  pupils  select  the  same  colors  from  the  worsteds 
or  pieces  of  silk,  place  them  together,  and  notice  their  appear- 
ance. 

Change  the  pair  of  colors,  so  that  each  pupil  shall  hold  a  dif- 
ferent pair.  Let  them  select  like  colors,  place  them  together,  and 
observe  the  effect. 

When  the  pupils  have  thus  observed  pairs  of  red  and  green, 
blue  and  orange,  yellow  and  purple,  place  before  them  pairs  of 
colors  that  are  not  harmonic,  as  red  and  orange,  yellow  and  or- 
ange, blue  and  green,  yellow  and  green,  and  lead  them  to  notice 
whether  the  colors  of  these  pairs  look  well. 

Next  let  the  pupils  take  one  of  the  colors  of  the  non-harmonic 
pairs,  and  try  to  find  another  color  that  will  look  well  with  it. 

Talk  about  colors  for  a  dress.  Ask  whether  blue  ribbon  would 
look  well  on  a  green  dress ;  whether  yellow  would  look  well  on  a 
pink  dress ;  whether  red  would  look  well  on  a  green  dress,  etc. 

Continue  exercises  in  arranging  colors  that  look  well  together 
until  the  pupils  understand  that  some  colors  please  the  eye,  while 
others  offend  it. 

If  it  be  found  that  false  notions  as  to  which  colors  may  be 
grouped  together  are  entertained  by  the  pupils,  these  should  be 
corrected. 


LESSONS  IN  HARMONY  OF  COLORS.  121 


II. 

Object — To  furnish  additional  exercise  in  the  harmony 
of  colors. 

Place  before  the  pupils  colored  papers,  silks,  worsteds,  etc.,  and 
request  each  to  form  pairs  of  colors  that  look  well.  Should  a 
pupil  violate  the  law  of  harmony  in  the  arrangement  of  these 
pairs,  call  her  attention  to  it;  and  if  she  cannot  correct  it,  let  the 
class  tell  what  is  wrong,  and  what  color  to  substitute  for  one  of 
them. 

Let  pupils  select  colors  that  please  them  best,  and  the  class 
decide  whether  the  colors  are  harmonic. 

Place  before  the  pupils  pairs  of  non-harmonic  colors,  and  re- 
quest the  pupils  to  tell  what  changes  must  be  made  to  produce  a 
pair  of  harmonic  colors. 

Request  the  pupils  to  arrange  flowers  in  a  bouquet  so  that  the 
principal  colors  shall  be  harmonic.  Place  complementary  colors 
side  by  side,  as  blue  with  orange,  yellow  with  purple,  red  with 
green  leaves ;  and  use  white  to  separate  colors  which  do  not 
harmonize.  Add  a  variety  of  similar  exercises,  until  the  pupils 
appear  to  understand  when  colors  are  harmonic,  and  why  some 
colors  do  not  please  the  sense  of  sight. 

After  lessons  for  observing  colors  that  look  well  together,  ar- 
range other  pairs  of  colored  squares,  as  follows  :  red  and  orange ; 
yellow  and  orange ;  blue  and  green ;  yellow  and  green  ;  blue  and 
purple ;  red  and  purple.  Show  these  groups  of  colors  to  the 
pupils,  and  ask  them  to  decide  whether  these  look  as  well  as 
those  of  the  other  groups.  Then  place  squares  of  red  and  green, 
and  of  red  and  orange,  before  the  pupils,  and  let  them  tell  which 
pair  appears  better.  Make  similar  comparisons  with  other  colors, 
so  as  to  afford  abundant  exercise  in  discriminating  colors  that 
harmonize  from  those  that  do  not. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  so  conduct  all  of  these  lessons  on 
harmony  of  colors  that  the  pupils  will  be  required  to  observe 
the  effect  of  each  pair  of  colors,  and  to  decide  for  themselves 
whether  the  colors  appear  well  together. 

6 


122  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


in. 

Object. — To  teach  the  names  of  prominent  colors  that 
harmonize. 

Request  the  pupils  to  name  colors  that  harmonize  in  the  pairs  of 
harmonic  colors  shown  them.  Request  them  also  to  arrange  colors 
in  harmonic  pairs,  and  to  tell  what  colors  they  thus  place  together. 

Request  them  to  point  out  and  name,  from  the  chart,  two  col- 
ors that  harmonize. 

The  teacher  may  name  a  color,  and  a  pupil  name  one  to  har- 
monize with  it. 

One  pupil  may  name  a  color,  the  next  pupil  one  to  harmonize 
•with  it,  and  so  on  around  the  class. 

The  teacher  may  name  five  colors  for  pupils  to  write  on  their 
slates,  and  require  the  pupils  to  write  with  each  color  the  name 
of  one  that  will  harmonize  with  it.  * 

Let  pupils  select  colors,  and  others  match  them  with  harmonic 
colors,  and  name  each  color. 

Give  lessons  in  which  special  attention  is  directed  to  ascertain- 
ing what  color  harmonizes  with  a  given  color.  The  method 
already  mentioned  under  the  head  of  "Complementary  Colors" — 
that  of  placing  the  given  color  upon  a  black  surface  in  a  strong 
light,  etc. — may  be  used. 

IV. 

Object. — To  lead  the  pupils  to  notice  harmony  between 
secondary  and  tertiary  colors. 

Place  before  the  pupils  various  objects,  cards,  etc.,  represent- 
ing purple,  orange,  green,  russet,  citrine,  olive,  etc.,  and  request 
the  pupils  to  select  pairs  of  colors  that  harmonize.  The  names 
of  these  pairs  may  be  written  on  the  blackboard  as  they  are 
selected  by  the  pupils,  thus — 

Purple,  Green,  Orange, 

Citrine.  Russet.  Olive. 

Request  one  pupil  to  select  and  name  a  secondary  color,  an- 
other one  to  select  its  harmonic  color,  and  name  it. 


LESSONS  IN  HARMONY  OF  COLORS.  123 

V. 

Object. — To  lead  pupils  to  observe  the  principles  of 
harmony  of  colors  in  dress  and  decorations  of  rooms,  etc. 

Provide  articles — as  shawls,  capes,  etc.  —  of  different  colors. 
These  may  be  made  of  colored  paper  if  the  desired  colors  can- 
not be  found  in  garments  at  hand. 

Select  a  child  with  a  pink  dress,  and  place  a  blue  cape  on  it, 
and  request  the  pupils  to  notice  the  effect. 

Place  a  green  cape  on  the  same  child,  and  let  the  pupils  tell 
which  looks  better. 

Make  similar  experiments  with  dresses  of  other  colors,  until  the 
pupils  readily  understand  what  colors  may  be  used  together  in 
articles  of  dress. 

Lead  them  to  notice  colors  of  carpets,  and  to  tell  what  colors 
would  look  well  for  furniture  -  covering,  wall-paper,  etc.,  in  the 
same  room,  with  the  given  color. 

VI. 

Object. — To  lead  pupils  to  observe  the  effect  of  black 
and  white  grounds  upon  colors,  etc. 

Interesting  experiments  may  be  made  which  will  lead  the  pu- 
pils to  observe  how  colors  are  affected  by  white,  black,  or  other 
colors.  Place  red,  blue,  green,  purple,  orange,  yellow,  etc.,  sep- 
arately upon  white  paper,  and  upon  a  black  surface,  and  upon 
surfaces  of  other  colors,  and  let  the  pupils  notice  the  differences 
in  their  brightness  and  fulness  when  seen  in  these  different  posi- 
tions. 

Call  out  two  girls,  each  with  dark  hair  and  dark  .complexion. 
Place  on  one  child  a  light-blue  cape  or  shawl,  on  the  other  a  red 
or  pink.  one.  Request  the  pupils  to  tell  which  color  is  most  be- 
coming to  these  girls.  Place  other  colors  upon  these  girls,  and 
let  the  children  tell  whether  they  look  well  or  not. 

Call  out  girls  with  light  hair  and  light  complexion,  and  pro- 
ceed in  a  similar  manner,  leading  the  children  to  determine  which 
colors  appear  best  on  them. 


124:  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

During  all  the  lessons  on  harmony  of  color,  as  well  as  in  the 
previous  lessons,  you  should  bear  in  mind  that  your  chief  pur- 
pose is  to  train  the  pupils  to  distinguish  the  differences,  resem- 
blances, and  relations  of  color,  and  that  you  can  succeed  in  doing 
this  only  by  exercises  that  will  cause  the  pupils  to  use  their  own 
powers  of  observation. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  add  that  during  every  lesson  on  color 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  pupils  abundant  experience 
with  colors ;  and  in  all  your  efforts  to  teach  them  the  important 
facts  in  relation  to  this  subject,  let  your  chief  reliance  for  success 
be  placed  upon  that  which  you  induce  the  child  to  perceive  and 
do  for  itself. 

Name  of  Pigment  or  Paint 
Name  of  Color.  that  wilf  produce  it. 

Red Carmine,  madder  lake,  Chinese  vermilion. 

Orange Red-lead,  cadmium  yellow. 

Yellow Chrome  yellow,  gamboge. 

Green Paris  green,  emerald  green. 

Blue Turquoise  blue,  Prussian  blue. 

Dark  blue Ultramarine,  indigo. 

y.  ,  ,  |  Mix  Chinese  vermilion,  turquoise  blue,  and 

'  \      white,  using  most  of  the  blue. 

•p      1  j  Mix  carmine  and  ultramarine,  using  most 

1      of  the  red. 

Each  color  may  be  made  lighter  by  mixing  pure  white  with  it. 

Imperfect  representations  of  some  of  the  primary  and  second- 
ary colors  may  be  produced  by  a  solution  of  chemicals, — inter- 
esting experiments  with  such  solutions  may  be  shown  by  any 
druggist, — but  the  mixture  of  two  primary  colors,  thus  produced, 
will  not  form  a  corresponding  secondary  color,  as  with  the  mixt- 
ure of  paints. 


PROPERTIES  OF  OBJECTS.  125 


PKOPERTIES  OF  OBJECTS. 

[Supplementary  to  Lessons  on  Qualities  in  Primary  Object  Lessons.] 

THE  lessons  on  Qualities  in  Primary  Object  Lessons 
[pages  345-364]  have  for  their  chief  purpose  the  devel- 
opment of  the  several  senses  of  young  pupils,  by  train- 
ing them  to  discover  given  qualities  in  different  objects, 
and  thereby  teaching  them  habits  of  careful  observation. 
Those  lessons  on  qualities  were  also  intended  to  prepare 
the  pupils  for  the  succeeding  Lessons  on  Objects  [pages 
365-406],  through  which  they  learn  to  discover  what  qual- 
ities belong  to  given  objects,  and  which  of  those  qual- 
ities make  the  objects  most  useful.  The  lessons  on  ob- 
jects were  designed  further  to  teach  that  objects  are  adapt- 
ed to  their  respective  uses  because  they  possess  certain 
qualities,  and  also  to  show  how  those  qualities  n't  the  ob- 
ject for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  commonly  used. 

It  is  intended  by  these  lessons  on  the  Properties  of  Ob- 
jects to  teach  the  pupils  to  distinguish  those  other  quali- 
ties which,  though  less  palpable,  enable  us  to  determine 
what  substances  compose  the  different  objects,  and  there- 
by guide  the  learner  to  a  more  comprehensive  and  practi- 
cal knowledge  of  objects  and  their  uses.  It  is  understood 
that  the  pupils  will  have  become  familiar  with  the  com- 
mon qualities  of  objects,  by  means  of  previous  lessons, 
before  the  following  lessons  are  given ;  therefore,  the 
teacher  may  use  the  knowledge  thereby  gained  to  teach 
the  pupils  additional  facts  about  objects. 


126  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


LESSONS  TO  DEVELOP  THE  IDEA  OF  SUBSTANCES. 

Teacher's  Introduction.— To-day  I  shall  try  to  teach  you 
something  new  about  objects.  You  know  that  some  objects  are 
brittle,  others  tough,  elastic,  combustible,  transparent,  absorbent, 
fusible,  soluble,  ductile,  etc.,  and  that  the  objects  are  used  to  make 
different  things  because  they  possess  some  of  these  qualities.  You 
also  know  that  some  things  are  made  of  wood,  as  chairs,  tables, 
doors,  and  various  parts  of  houses ;  you  know  that  some  things 
are  made  of  iron,  lead,  silver,  steel,  as  stoves,  nails,  shovels,  ham- 
mers, pipe,  spoons,  forks,  knives,  and  other  tools ;  that  some  things 
are  made  of  leather,  as  shoes,  boots,  harnesses,  saddles,  trunks ; 
other  things  are  made  of  stone  and  brick,  as  slates,  houses,  walls, 
walks,  bridges.  Now,  if  you  will  think  about  these  objects,  you 
will  remember  that  wood,  iron,  leather,  and  stone  differ  from  each 
other  very  much.  Some  of  them  are  combustible,  while  others 
are  not ;  some  are  fusible,  while  others  are  not ;  but  these  are  not 
the  differences  which  I  wish  you  to  learn  now. 

Each  of  these  objects  of  which  things  are  made — as  wood,  iron, 
lead,  stone,  leather — is  called  a  substance.  I  will  write  the  word 
on  the  blackboard,  and  you  may  name  each  letter  as  I  make  it : 

substance. 

What  did  I  call  this  word  ? 

Pupils.  Substance. 

T.  William  may  spell  the  word,  and  name  some  substance. 

Some  substances  are  hard,  like  stone,  iron,  silver ;  some  are  soft, 
like  cotton,  silk,  fur ;  some  are  heavy,  like  lead,  silver,  stone ;  some 
are  light,  like  feathers,  sponge,  cork.  Thus  you  see  that  sub- 
stances have  many  different  qualities ;  that  qualities  do  not  make 
substances,  but  that  substances  possess  qualities.  Qualities  be- 
long to  substances.  A  substance  is  a  thing  which  can  be  per- 
ceived, or  used,  or  made  into  something  to  be  used.  It  is  the 


CLASSES  AND  KINDS  OF  SUBSTANCES.  127 

material  of  which  anything  is  made.  Now  you  may  tell  me  what 
a  substance  is. 

Pupils.  A  substance  is  that  of  ivhich  -anything  can  be  made. 
A.  substance  is  something  that  we  can  perceive  by  a  sense. 

Teacher.  You  may  name  the  substances  that  you  can  think  of, 
and  I  will  write  the  names  on  the  blackboard. 

P.  Wood,  coal,  ashes,  sand,  stone,  bark,  clay,  brick,  slate,  iron, 
lead,  silver,  gold,  water,  cork,  cotton,  wool,  silk,  fur,  leather,  bone, 
ivory,  wheat,  corn,  turnip,  apple,  peach,  glass,  ice,  milk,  etc. 

T.  Now,  if  you  will  look  at  the  names  of  these  substances,  and 
think  about  them,  you  will  notice  that  they  are  not  all  alike.  I 
will  try  in  our  next  lesson  to  teach  you' to  distinguish  different 
kinds  of  substances,  and  to  arrange  them  in  groups  or  classes. 

CLASSES  AND  KINDS  OF  SUBSTANCES. 

Second  Lesson. — T.  You  have  already  learned  that  all 
substances  are  not  alike ;  now  I  will  try  to  teach  you  about 
the  kinds  and  classes  of  substances,  and  how  to  distinguish  each 
class.  First,  I  will  give  you  another  word  which  means  about 
the  same  as  substance;  that  word  is  matter.  When  I  use  the 
word  matter,  you  may  know  that  I  mean  either  all  kinds  of  sub- 
stances, or  that  of  which  anything  is  composed.  Thus,  all  animals 
are  matter;  all  flowers,  plants,  and  trees  are  matter;  all  sand,  stone, 
iron,  silver,  and  gold  are  matter.  By  observing  these  various  sub- 
stances you  will  discover  that  all  matter  is  not  alike ;  it  may  be 
divided  into  classes  and  kinds. 

One  class  of  matter,  such  as  we  see  in  animals,  is  arranged  into 
parts  for  specific  uses,  as  eyes,  teeth,  nails,  hair,  feathers,  skin, 
flesh,  blood,  bones,  etc.  Another  class  of  matter,  such  as  we  see 
in  plants,  is  also  arranged  into  different  parts  for  other  uses,  as 
roots,  bark,  leaves,  sap,  wood,  fruit,  flowers,  etc. 

Another  kind  of  matter  has  no  parts  for  a  specific  use,  as  stone, 
sand,  clay,  iron,  lead,  ice,  water,  etc. 

Now,  we  call  all  matter  that  is  arranged  into  parts  for  specific 
uses — as  parts  of  animals  and  plants — organized  matter ;  and  we 
call  all  matter  that  has  no  part  of  it  arranged  or  fitted  for  any 


128  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

particular  use,  unorganized  matter.  To  show  me  whether  you 
understand  what  these  terms  mean,  you  may  name  things  that 
belong  to  the  organized  matter. 

Pupils.  Wool,  feathers,  hair,  teeth,  eyes,  skin,  wood,  sap,  bark, 
leaves,  fruit,  etc. 

Teacher.  Now  you  may  name  things  that  belong  to  the  un- 
organized matter. 

P.  Rocks,  clay,  slate,  sand,  ice,  iron,  lead,  tin,  silver,  water,  etc. 

Animals. — T.  Very  good.  Now  you  can  easily  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish the  different  classes  of  substances.  You  know  that  some 
things  have  life  and  feeling,  and  breathe,  and  take  food,  and  move 
about  by  their  own  power.  Such  things  we  call  Animals.  Who 
will  tell  me  what  animals  have  ? 

P.  Animals  have  life  and  feeling. 

T.  What  can  animals  do  ? 

P.  Animals  can  breathe,  take  food,  and  move. 

T.  I  will  write  it  on  the  blackboard,  and  you  may  copy  it : 

An  animal  has  life  and  feeling  /  it  takes  food,  and  can  move 


Animal  Substances. — Sometimes  we  see  parts  of  an  animal — 
something  that  once  belonged  to  an  animal — such  as  horn,  hair, 
fur,  feathers,  skin,  glue,  tallow,  bone,  wool,  etc. ;  these  things  arc 
called  animal  substances.  An  animal  substance  is  something  that 
once  formed  a  part  of  an  animal. 

I  will  now  write  some  words  on  the  blackboard,  and  you  may 
tell  me  which  are  names  of  animals,  and  which  are  names  of  ani- 
mal substances.  [Teacher  writes  three  columns ;  two  of  animals, 
and  one  of  animal  substances.] 

1.  2.  3. 

Cat,  FUP,  Eagle, 

Dog,  Hair,  Fish, 

Cow,  Wool,  Fly, 

Sheep,  Horn,  Ant, 

Hen,  Bone,  Bug, 

Duck.  Feathers.  Snake. 


ANIMAL   SUBSTANCES.  129 

Teacher.  Now,  which  words  are  names  of  animals  ? 

Pupils.  Those  in  the  first  and  third  columns. 

T.  What  do  the  words  in  the  second  column  represent  ? 

P.  Animal  substances. 

T.  Now  let  us  examine  these  words,  and  see  if  each  of  those 
in  the  first  and  third  columns  represents  something  that  has  life 
and  feeling. 

P.  I  think  all  of  them  do  represent  something  having  life  and 
feeling. 

T.  Well,  does  each  word  represent  something  that  takes  food 
or  eats? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  Does  each  word  represent  something  that  can  move  itself? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  Then  all  of  those  words  represent  animals.  Now  let  us 
examine  the  words  in  the  second  column.  Here  is  a  piece  of 
feather ;  did  this  ever  form  a  part  of  an  animal  ? 

P.  Yes ;  a  part  of  a  bird. 

T.  Can  you  say  that  fur,  hair,  wool,  horn,  and  bone  once 
formed  parts  of  animals  ? 

P.  Yes. 

T.  Then  you  are  correct.  All  the  words  in  the  second  column 
are  names  of  animal  substances.  Now  you  may  take  your  slates 
and  write  the  names  of  ten  animals,  and  the  names  of  ten  animal 
substances. 

Third  Lesson. — T.  Some  things,  I  told  you,  have  life  and 
feeling.  There  are  other  things  that  have  another  kind  of  life, 
but  which  have  no  feeling.  Some  things,  you  know,  have  the 
power  of  motion.  There  are  other  things  which  have  no  power 
of  motion.  We  will  now  talk  about  those  things  which  have 
life,  but  not  the  power  of  motion. 

Plants.  —  Here,  in  this  pot  of  earth,  is  a  flower ;  it  is  also 
called  a  plant.  It  grows,  sends  out  leaves,  buds,  and  blossoms. 
But  if  you  should  remove  it  from  the  earth,  or  neglect  for  a  long 
time  to  water  it,  the  plant  would  die.  If  a  plant  can  live  and 
die,  it  must  possess  life.  It  has  what  we  call  plant-life. 

6* 


130  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Now,  if  you  should  pinch  a  plant  with  your  fingers,  or  cut  it 
with  a  knife,  do  you  think  the  plant  would  feel  pain  ? 

Pupils.  No.     Plants  have  no  feeling. 

Teacher.  Certainly  they  have  not  such  feeling  as  you  and  other 
animals  have,  although  they  may  be  killed. 

The  plant  takes  food  from  the  moist  earth  by  means  of  its  fine 
thread-like  roots.  Water,  by  remaining  in  the  soil,  dissolves  some 
of  its  nourishment,  and  this  moisture  is  taken  up  by  the  fine 
roots  of  the  plant  or  tree,  and  carried  through  the  little  pores 
to  the  stem,  and  branches,  and  leaves,  and  blossoms.  The  water 
thus  taken  up  is  what  constitutes  the  juice  or  sap  of  the  tree. 
This  sap  flows  through  all  parts  of  the  plant  very  much  as  the 
blood  flows  through  all  parts  of  our  bodies.  The  plant  also  takes 
food  from  the  air  by  means  of  its  leaves,  which  are  filled  with 
thousands  of  very  little  holes,  called  pores.  It  seems  to  breathe 
through  the  pores  in  its  leaves,  and  by  means  of  these  it  also 
takes  food  from  the  air. 

Thus  you  see  that  plants  live,  take  food,  and  breathe;  but  plants 
have  no  feeling,  nor  the  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place. 
Their  life  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  animals ;  they  do  not  take 
food  in  the  same  way  as  animals  do ;  they  do  not  breathe  as  ani- 
mals breathe. 

All  trees,  shrubs,  flowers,  grasses,  vines,  and  mosses  are  plants. 
They  are  also  sometimes  called  vegetables.  Vegetables  have  life  ; 
they  take  food;  they  grow  in  or  from  the  earth;  but  they  have 
no  feeling,  and  no  power  of  moving  themselves. 

Now  listen  while  I  read  to  you  something  which  I  found  about 
vegetables  and  animals  in  a  very  interesting  book  :* 

"  Only  observe  the  air  and  food  which  a  tree  requires  to  keep  it 
alive.  Its  roots  suck  up  the  juices  which  they  find  in  the  earth; 
and  by  some  wonderful  power  which  the  great  Creator  has  put  in  a 
tree,  these  juices  are  made  to  run  up  the  stem.  They  run  up  partly 
under  the  bark,  but  mostly  through  the  cells  or  holes  in  the  fresh 
wood  that  was  made  during  the  former  year ;  and  these  juices  run 
up  the  stem,  something  in  the  way  that  water  runs  up  the  sides  of  a 
piece  of  sugar;  only  in  the  trees  these  juices  do  not  stop,  but  go  on 

*  The  Observing  Eye. 


OX  VEGETABLES  AND  ANIMALS.         131 

till  they  reach  the  leaves.  Now  every  leaf  is  full  of  innumerable 
little  holes,  through  which  air  rushes  in  and  mixes  with  the  drawn- 
up  juices ;  and  as  every  leaf  is  made  up  of  a  top  skin  and  of  an 
under  skin,  with  fine  fibres  running  between  them,  the  fresh  sap 
runs  along  the  top  part  of  the  leaf,  and  then  passes  to  the  under- 
side of  the  Ifeaf.  During  this  passage  through  the  leaf,  the  air 
changes  the  quality  of  the  purnped-up  juices. 

"  Sometimes  the  air  prepares  the  sap  to  become  sweet,  sometimes 
sour  or  bitter ;  sometimes  it  prepares  it  to  turn  to  a  clear  gum,  some- 
times to  a  thick  juice  like  tar,  just  according  to  the  laws  which  the 
wise  Creator  has  seen  it  good  to  establish.  As  soon  as  the  air  has 
made  this  change,  the  sap  flows  back  into  the  tree,  and  going  down 
under  the  bark,  it  forms  a  band  of  new  wopd,  and  likewise  nourishes 
the  woody  fibre  of  the  great  trunk. 

"Animals  have  no  roots  by  which  to  gather  up  the  nourishment 
they  require.  Their  food  is  received  by  a  mouth,  and  passes  down 
into  a  cavity  called  the  stomach,  where  it  is  melted  or  dissolved. 
The  juices  drawn  out  of  the  received  food  are  then  carried  all  over 
the  animal  by  innumerable  little  tubes,  called  arteries  and  veins. 
Yet  air  must  always  mix  with  these  juices,  or  the  animal  will  die. 
Some  creatures  draw  the  air  into  their  blood  through  little  holes  in 
their  sides — flies  do  this ;  others  draw  the  air  in  by  gills — such  as 
fishes ;  others  draw  air  down  into  the  chest  by  breathing.  In  the 
chest  the  air  meets  with  the  new  juices,  and  turns  them  to  a  bright 
red.  This  bright-red  blood  keeps  the  bodies  of  all  back-boned  ani- 
mals warm,  and  makes  them  grow. 

"  So  far  we  have  seen  that  both  vegetables  and  animals  want  two 
things  :  they  want  food  and  air.  What,  then,  is  the  difference  be- 
tween a  plant  and  an  animal  ?  The  great  difference  is  that  vegeta- 
bles always  absorb,  or  take  up  their  food  by  the  roots,  or  outside 
of  their  bodies ;  while  animals  always  absorb  or  take  up  the  juices 
of  their  food  from  cavities  in  the  inside  of  their  bodies.  And  these 
two  modes  of  support  make  an  important  difference  in  vegetable 
and  animal  life.  Vegetables  become  fastened  down  in  one  place, 
that  their  roots  may  absorb  the  moisture  around  them ;  while  ani- 
mals carrying  their  food  with  them  are  generally  left  at  liberty  to 
move  about.  Then,  again,  vegetables  have  no  feeling  and  no  wills ; 
while  animals  feel  pain,  and  not  only  move  about  from  place  to 
place,  but  have  strong  wills." 

Teacher.  Now  who  will  tell  me  what  a  plant  or  vegetable  is  ? 
Pupils.  A  plant  or  vegetable  is  something  that  has  life,  takes 
food,  but  has  no  feeling,  and  cannot  move  itself. 


132 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


Vegetable  Substances. — Things  that  once  formed  a  part  of  a 
tree  or  vegetable  are  called  vegetable  substances — as  wood,  bark, 
nuts,  fruit,  flax,  cotton,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  grains,  straw,  flowers,  etc. 

Fourth  Lesson. — Review.  The  teacher  mHy  now  men- 
tion various  articles — as  corn,  wheat,  sheep,  hens,  flowers,  vines, 
pigeons,  hawks,  flour,  wool,  feathers,  starch,  tea,  sugar,  hair,  cows, 
etc. — and  request  the  children,  as  each  is  named,  to  tell  whether 
it  is  an  animal  or  vegetable,  an  animal  substance  or  a  vegetable 
substance. 

Afterward  the  children  should  be  requested  to  mention  several 
animals,  while  the  teacher  writes  their  names  upon  the  black- 
board ;  then  several  vegetables,  in  the  same  manner ;  also  to  men- 
tion animal  substances  and  vegetable  substances  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, and  the  teacher  to  write  the  names  upon  the  blackboard. 

The  teacher  may  extend  this  subject,  when  the  age  and  attain- 
ments of  the  pupils  make  it  appropriate,  to  some  classifications  of 
vegetable  and  animal  substances.  This  may  be  commenced  by  re- 
questing the  pupils  to  mention  substances  for  each  column,  while 
the  teacher  writes  the  words  in  their  proper  places,  after  head-lines 
have  been  written  on  the  blackboard  as  follows,  viz. : 

VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES  USED 
For  Food.  For  Clothiug.  For  Other  Purposes. 

Corn,  beans,  Cotton,               Cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  straw 

Pease,  wheat,  Flax,                       for  paper. 

Potatoes,  Hemp,                 Wood  for  houses,  furniture, 

Beets,  India-rubber,           carriages,  fuel,  utensils,  vie. 

Onions,  Palm-leaves,        Indigo,  logwood,  madder,  saf- 

Cabbage,  turnips,  Straw.                      fron,  and  various  barks,  for 

Apples,  peaches,  coloring. 

Oranges,  grapes,  Camphor   and   other   gums, 

Berries,  nuts,  castor  and  other  oils,  for 

Sugar.  medicine. 

The  same  plan  may  be  pursued  with  animal  substances,  writing 
on  the  blackboard  as  follows,  viz. : 


SUBSTANCES :   MINERAL,  VEGETABLE,  ANIMAL.          133 

ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES  USED 

For  Food.  For  Clothiug.  For  Other  Purposes. 

Beef,  pork,  Wool,  Leather  for  harnesses,  shoes, 

Mutton,  fish,  Fur,  bookbinding,  trunks. 

Veal,  lamb,  Silk,  Horn  for  buttons,  knife-han- 

Turkey,  chicken,  Leather,  dies,  combs. 

Eggs,  butter,  Hair.  Bone  for  buttons,  handles. 

Cheese,  milk.  Ivory  for  keys  of  pianos. 

Fifth  Lesson. — Mineral  Substances.  Teacher.  We  have 
been  talking  about  things  that  have  life,  and  those  that  once 
formed  a  part  of  something  that  had  life.  Now,  can  any  of  the 
children  tell  me  whether  they  ever  saw  anything  that  has  no  life, 
and  that  is  not  a  part  of  any  animal  or  vegetable  ? 

Pupils.  Yes ;  a  stone,  a  piece  of  iron,  salt,  silver,  glass,  gold, 
sand,  slate-pencil,  copper,  chalk,  coal,  etc. 

T.  Now  let  us  see  how  many  kinds  of  substances  we  have  found : 
those  that  have  life  and  feeling  and  self-motion,  as  animals  ;  those 
that  have  life,  but  no  feeling  nor  self-motion,  as  vegetables ;  and 
those  that  have  neither  life,  nor  feeling,  nor  motion ;  these  are 
called  minerals.  Now  write  on  your  slates  what  I  tell  you  about 
these  three  classes  of  substances. 

Mineral. — A  mineral  has  no  life,  no  feeling,  no  self-motion,  and 
does  not  take  food.  A  mineral  is  obtained  from  the  earth,  and  is 
a  part  of  the  earth.  A  mineral  has  no  parts  arranged  for  any 
particular  purpose,  as  roots,  sap,  leaves,  feet,  hands,  etc.  It  has 
no  organs.  A  mineral  is  not  an  organized  substance. 

Vegetable. — A  vegetable  has  life ;  it  grows  in  or  from  the 
earth ;  it  takes  food  from  the  earth.  Its  food  is  unorganized 
matter,  or  a  mineral  substance.  A  vegetable  has  roots,  trunk, 
branches,  leaves,  bark,  sap,  each  designed  for  a  special  purpose. 
These  are  its  organs.  It  is  called  an  organized  substance. 

Animal. — An  animal  has  life ;  it  moves  about  the  earth ;  it 
takes  for  food  organized  matter,  either  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances. 


134:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

An  animal  has  organs  for  seeing,  for  breathing,  for  eating,  for 
hearing,  for  feeling,  and  for  moving  about.  It  is  called  an  organ- 
ized being. 

Now  tell  me  what  both  the  vegetable  and  animal  have.  Tell 
me  what  both  the  vegetable  and  animal  do.  Tell  me  what  the 
animal  does  that  the  vegetable  and  mineral  cannot  do. 

The  teacher  may  now  write  on  the  blackboard  the  following 
head-lines,  also  the  names  of  substances,  as  the  pupils  tell  in  which 
column  the  names  mentioned  should  be  written : 

Mineral.  Vegetable.  Animal. 

Stone,  iron,  Grass,  flowers,  Cat,  horse, 

Lead,  water,  Coffee,  tea,  Fly,  bird, 

Ice,  brick,  Sugar,  starch,  Cow,  moth, 

Salt,  coal,  Wheat,  potatoes,  Snail,  fish, 

Slate,  chalk.  Apples,  nuts.  Ant,  boy. 

Teacher.  You  have  already  learned  that  there  are  three  kinds 
of  substances :  minerals,  vegetables,  and  animals ;  that  animals 
and  vegetables  have  life,  and  that  minerals  have  no  life.  Now 
can  you  tell  me  what  animals  do  to  sustain  life  ? 

Pupils.  They  take  food. 

T.  Which  do  they  eat — animals,  vegetables,  or  min'erals  ? 

P.  Some  animals  eat  other  animals,  and  some  eat  vegetables. 

T.  Can  you  tell  what  animals  eat  other  animals,  and  what  ani- 
mals eat  vegetables. 

P.  The  cat  eats  mice  and  birds ;  the  dog  will  eat  the  flesh  of 
other  animals ;  the  lion,  tiger,  hawk,  and  eagle  eat  other  animals. 
The  cow,  horse,  sheep,  goat,  hen,  goose,  and  many  birds  eat  vege- 
table substances. 

T.  Can  you  name  any  animal  that  takes  minerals  for  its  food? 

P.  I  cannot. 

T.  Animals  cannot  live  on  mineral  substances  alone.  Some 
animals  must  take  vegetable  food,  and  thus  produce  animal  food 
of  their  own  flesh.  Some  animals  eat  the  flesh  of  other  animals ; 
but  animals  could  not  live  without  vegetables  to  change  mineral 
substances  into  conditions  suitable  for  food.  Thus  you  see  that 
animals  depend  on  vegetable  life  for  their  food,  and  vegetables 
depend  on  minerals  for  their  food. 


SUBSTANCES:  MINERAL,  VEGETABLE,  ANIMAL.          135 

The  rain,  sunlight,  heat,  and  frosts  soften  the  rocks,  and  cause 
them  to  crumble  into  fine  earth,  or  soil.  The  moisture,  warmth, 
air,  and  sunlight  cause  the  plants  to  grow.  By  some  wonderful 
process  they  obtain  food  from  the  fine  soil  at  their  roots,  and  from 
the  air  around  their  leaves,  and  thus  change  their  food  into  a  new 
substance  that  we  call  vegetable.  This  new  substance,  in  turn,  be- 
comes food  for  animals,  and  it  is  again  changed  into  other  sub- 
stances that  form  the  flesh  and  bones  of  the  animal.  Thus  you 
may  see  how  each  kind  of  substance  depends  upon  each  of  the 
other  kinds.  The  plants  take  the  mineral  substances  of  the  earth 
and  air,  and  change  them  into  vegetable  substances ;  the  animals 
take  the  vegetable  substances,  and  change  them  into  animal  sub- 
stances. 

Minerals  are  inorganic  matter ;  vegetables  and  animals  are  or- 
ganic matter.  Minerals  furnish  the  materials  for  vegetables  ;  veg- 
etables furnish  the  materials  for  animals.  Animal  life  depends 
upon  vegetable  life  for  support ;  vegetable  life  depends  upon  min- 
erals for  support.  Plants  produce ;  animals  consume.  Without 
plants,  animals  would  perish. 


136  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


SUBSTANCES. 

MATERIALS  FOR  ADVANCED  LESSONS  ON  OBJECTS. 

MODEL  lessons  are  apt  to  become  formal ;  do  not  try, 
therefore,  to  commence  all  lessons  in  the  same  manner. 
Sometimes  begin  by  telling  the  pupils  something  about 
the  subject ;  sometimes  by  requesting  them  to  tell  some- 
thing about  it ;  sometimes  by  questions.  Surprises  are 
frequently  more  effective  in  arresting  attention  than  the 
best  of  prepared  introductions.  Try  to  make  the  lessons 
real  and  life-like  to  the  children.  At  times  let  them  tell 
what  they  see  in  the  object,  or  what  they  know  about  it ; 
at  other  appropriate  times  tell  them  new  facts,  when  they 
most  need  them.  Never  tell  them  facts  for  the  sake  of 
the  telling,  but  to  meet  a  pressing  want  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  whicji  they  cannot  themselves  supply  by  ordi- 
nary efforts. 

The  aim  in  these  pages  is  to  supply  a  sufficient  amount 
of  information  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  with  notes  of  les- 
sons and  suggestive  exercises,  to  furnish  teachers  with 
abundant  materials  for  interesting  and  profitable  object- 
lessons. 

Where  lessons  are  written  out  they  are  intended  chief- 
ly to  illustrate  the  general  manner  of  giving  them.  The 
notes  of  lessons  are  furnished  to  point  out  the  important 
facts,  and  to  indicate  an  orderly  presentation  of  them ; 
while  the  information  for  lessons  on  other  subjects  is  de- 
signed to  furnish  accessible  matter  necessary  for  arrang- 
ing new  lessons. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  137 

~No  one  must  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  range  of 
subjects  and  lessons  here  presented  exhausts  the  treasures 
of  this  interesting  field ;  they  are  barely  first  steps  into 
regions  almost  boundless  in  the  extent  and  variety  of  ma- 
terials suitable  for  object-teaching ;  and  they  aim  to  point 
the  way  in  which  teachers  may  lead  their  pupils  to  a  prac- 
tical study  of  the  world  around  them. 

In  conducting  lessons  on  objects  with  these  substances, 
the  pupils  should  be  led  to  give  special  attention  to  those 
qualities  and  properties  which  constitute  their  chief  value, 
and  which  cause  them  to  be  used  foe  their  respective  pur- 
poses. Teachers  should  prepare  for  giving  the  lesson  by 
selecting  the  subject  and  deciding  which  are  the  impor- 
tant facts  to  be  taught.  The  substance  about  which  in- 
struction is  to  be  given,  and  other  materials  for  illus- 
trating the  lesson,  should  be  provided  beforehand.  On 
going  before  the  class  the  teacher  should  first  ascertain 
what  the  pupils  already  know  concerning  the  subject,  and 
thus  determine  where  the  proper  place  is  to  begin  the  les- 
son. And  the  teacher  should  be  able  at  once  to  present 
any  fact  which  the  condition  of  the  pupils  may  indicate  as 
needed. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS. 
CLOVES. 

BEFORE  commencing  this  lesson  the  teacher  should  procure  a 
few  cloves  for  the  pupils  to  examine,  and  suspend  maps  of  the 
hemispheres,  that  the  location  of  the  places  named  may  be  pointed 
out  before  the  class. 

Teacher.  How  many  of  you  can  tell  me  what  I  hold  in  my 
hand  ?  How  many  have  tasted  cloves  ? 

Pungent. — How  do  they  make  the  mouth  feel  ?  Can  you  tell 
me  of  other  things  that  have  a  hot,  biting  taste?  What  do  we 
call  this  taste  ? 


138  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Aromatic. — Did  you  ever  smell  of  cloves?  Is  the  odor  so 
pleasant  that  you  would  like  to  smell  it  again  ?  When  anything 
has  a  strong,  pleasant,  spicy  odor,  like  that  of  cloves,  we  say  it  is 
aromatic.  Can  you  tell  me  of  any  other  thing  that  is  aromatic  ? 

Fragrant. — There  is  another  word  which  we  use  in  speaking  of 
an  odor  that  is  pleasant  to  the  smell,  but  not  spicy;  it  is,  fragrant. 
Some  things  are  fragrant  that  are  not  aromatic.  A  rose  is  fra- 
grant; cloves  are  fragrant  and  aromatic. 

Please  notice  the  shape  of  these  cloves.  Did  you  ever  see  any- 
thing that  resembled  this  shape  ? 

Pupils.  Yes ;  it  has  a  head,  body,  or  shank,  and  point,  some- 
what like  a  nail. 

T.  This  is  called  a  clove  because  of  its  shape.  The  name  clove 
comes  from  clou,  a  French  word  for  nail,  because  the  clove  resem- 
bles a  French  nail  in  its  shape. 

Its  Country. — Now  let  us  find  on  the  map  the  places  where 
cloves  grow.  The  clove  is  a  native  production  of  the  Molucca 
Islands,  north  of  Australia,  Who  will  point  out  these  islands  ? 

The  clove  was  originally  produced  chiefly  on  the  island  of  Am- 
boyna.  The  French  introduced  the  clove-tree  into  the  islands  of 
Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  east  of  Madagascar.  Who  can  show  us 
where  these  islands  are  ? 

The  clove-tree  was  afterward  taken  to  French  Guiana,  in  South 
America,  and  from  thence  to  the  WTest  India  Islands.  Who  will 
point  out  these  places  ? 

The  clove-tree  somewhat  resembles  a  cherry-tree.  It  grows 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  lives  from  seventy-five 
to  one  hundred  years.  It  commences  to  produce  cloves  when 
eight  or  nine  years  old.  The  trunk  of  this  tree  is  slender,  bark 
smooth,  and  the  leaves  remain  on  the  tree  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year. 

The  blossoms  grow  in  clusters  —  from  nine  to  eighteen  in  a 
bunch  —  and  bear  a  slight  resemblance  to  those  of  the  honey- 
suckle. Their  color  changes  from  yellow  to  red.  A  single  tree 
will  produce  several  hundred  thousand  flowers  in  a  year,  and  yield 
from  five  to  ten  pounds  of  cloves.  The  culture  of  the  clove  is 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  139 

easy,  as  the  trees  require  no  more  attention  than  cherry-trees. 
The  harvest  takes  place  from  October  to  December. 

Cloves  are  the  unexpanded  flower -buds,  gathered  before  the 
flowers  open,  and  then  dried.  The  calyx  tube  forms  the  long 
part  of  the  clove ;  the  corolla,  enclosing  the  stamens,  forms  the 
ball  in  the  centre,  around  which  are  four  pointed  leaflets.  The 
bunches  of  flower-buds  are  gathered  by  hand,  or  by  means  of  a 
crooked  stick,  and  dried  by  a  hot  sun. 

Oil  of  cloves  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  flower-stalks. 

Cloves  are  used  for  domestic  and  medicinal  purposes,  because 
they  are  pungent  and  aromatic. 

Now  write  on  your  slates  answers  to  the  following  questions : 
What  kind  of  a  substance  is  a  clove  ?   What  are  cloves  ?   Where 
are  they  obtained  ?   What  are  their  qualities  ?   What  are  their  uses  ? 

PEPPER. 

Its  Country. — The  pepper-plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
It  is  a  climbing  vine,  with  stems  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in 
length.  The  leaves  are  dark  green,  thick  and  leathery ;  broad  at 
the  base,  and  pointed  at  the  apex,  and  resemble  the  ivy.  The 
flowers,  which  grow  in  close  spikes,  are  green  and  insignificant. 
These  are  succeeded  by  a  compact  cluster  of  round  green  berries, 
which  change  to  a  bright  red.  The  berries  are  gathered  as  soon 
as  they  redden.  If  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  vine,  they  lose  their 
pungency,  and  fall  off. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  is  supported  by  poles, 
or  by  trees  planted  for  the  purpose,  upon  which  it  is  trained.  The 
vine  begins  to  bear  fruit  when  three  or  four  years  old.  The  best 
crops  are  produced  when  the  plant  is  from  five  to  eight  years  old. 
The  vine  becomes  useless  after  twenty  years. 

The  berries  are  gathered  twice  a  year,  and  placed  on  mats  to 
dry  in  the  sun,  when  they  become  wrinkled  and  black. 

White  Pepper  is  produced  by  soaking  the  dried  berries  of 
the  black  pepper  in  water  until  the  wrinkled  skin  becomes  soft, 
and  then  rubbing  it  off.  This  process  destroys  some  of  fl^e  pun- 
gency. 


140  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Uses. — Pepper  is  used  as  a  condiment  for  food,  and  as  a  pow- 
erful stimulant  and  tonic  in  medicine.  Its  value  depends  upon  its 
pungent  quality. 

Cayenne  Pepper. — Cayenne  pepper  is  cultivated  in  large 
quantities  in  Guiana,  South  America,  and  shipped  from  the  port 
of  Cayenne.  This  plant  is  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United 
States,  picked  while  green,  and  used  for  pickling.  When  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  stalk  until  ripe,  it  becomes  bright  red.  After 
the  ripe  pods  of  the  Cayenne  pepper  are  picked  and  dried,  they 
are  ground,  and  thus  form  the  red,  or  Cayenne  pepper,  used  on 
our  tables. 

Take  your  slates  and  write  all  you  can  remember  about  pepper 
— where  it  grows  ;  how  it  grows  ;  how  it  is  gathered ;  where  the 
plants  are  raised ;  the  kinds  of  pepper ;  its  qualities ;  its  uses,  etc. 

Let  the  several  pupils  read  what  they  have  written.  Call  atten- 
tion to  faulty  statements,  and  make  such  suggestions  as  will  tend 
to  improve  the  arrangement  of  the  facts,  the  manner  of  presenting 
them,  and  aid  the  pupils  in  the  use  of  good  language. 

ALLSPICE,  JAMAICA  PEPPER,  OR  PIMENTO. 

"Where  it  Growa — The  pimento-tree,  which  produces  the  ber- 
ries commonly  known  as  "  allspice,"  grows  abundantly  in  Jamaica 
and  other  West  India  Islands.  It  attains  the  height  of  about  thir- 
ty feet.  The  trunk  is  gray  and  shining,  and  contains  numerous 
branches,  covered  with  dark  green  leaves ;  and  when  bruised  they 
emit  a  fine  aromatic  odor.  The  blossoms  are  white  and  numer- 
ous. A  grove  of  pimento-trees  in  blossom  presents  a  most  beau- 
tiful appearance ;  and  during  the  months  of  July  and  August  it 
perfumes  the  air  with  a  most  fragrant  odor. 

When  the  tree  has  attained  its  seventh  year  the  harvesting  of 
its  berries  is  commenced.  In  a  favorable  season  a  single  tree 
sometimes  yields  a  hundred  pounds  of  dried  berries. 

Soon  after  the  flowers  disappear  the  berries  are  ready  for  pick- 
ing, for  they  must  be  gathered  before  they  ripen,  or  the  berry 
becomes  valueless.  The  berry  is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  141 

common  black  pepper,  and  contains  two  small  seeds,  closely  pack- 
ed in  a  shell. 

The  harvest  commences  in  September,  when  the  green  berries 
are  gathered  by  hand.  One  person  on  the  tree  gathers  the  small 
branches,  while  children  pick  up  the  berries  that  fall  on  the  ground. 
These  berries  are  spread  on  floors  made  for  the  purpose,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  for  about  a  week.  During  this  time  they  are 
frequently  turned  and  winnowed.  Daring  this  drying  process 
they  change  from  a  green  to  a  brown  color.  They  are  then  put 
into  bags,  ready  for  market. 

This  spice  is  sometimes  called  by  the  name  of  the  tree  that  pro- 
duces it — pimento  ;  and  sometimes  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
island  that  produces  it  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  from  which 
it  is  chiefly  sent  to  other  countries — Jamaica  ;  but  more  common- 
ly it  is  called  allspice,  because  it  has  been  said  to  combine  the  fla- 
vor of  all  the  other  spices.  AVhat  are  its  chief  qualities?  Is  it 
pungent  ?  Is  it  aromatic  ? 

It  is  used  chiefly  for  flavoring  food.  Oil  of  pimento  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves. 

Why  would  you  call  allspice  a  vegetable  substance  ? 

Now  write  all  the  facts  you  can  remember  about  allspice — what 
it  is ;  where  it  grows ;  how  it  is  gathered ;  what  are  its  qualities ; 
what  are  its  uses,  etc. 

NUTMEG. 

Its  Country. — The  nutmeg-tree  is  a  native  of  the  Banda  Isl- 
ands, in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  but  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
throughout  the  East  Indies.  This  tree  grows  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  feet  in  height,  and  resembles  a  pear-tree.  The  flow- 
ers are  pale  yellow,  and  grow  in  small  bunches. 

The  fruit  is  of  a  cream  color,  and  resembles  a  peach.  When 
ripe,  the  fleshy  part  splits  into  two  halves,  showing  the  kernel,  or 
nutmeg,  surrounded  by  a  stringy  covering  of  a  scarlet  color,  which 
becomes  yellow  by  drying.  This  net-work  sheath  has  an  agree- 
able smell  and  an  aromatic  taste,  and  when  dried  forms  the  arti- 
cle known  as  mace. 


14:2  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Under  the  mace  part  of  the  nut  there  is  a  hard,  thin  shell  of  a 
dark  brown  color,  and  within  this  shell  is  the  kernel  of  the  nut, 
which  is  the  real  nutmeg  used  in  food.  The  fleshy  part  of  the 
nutmeg  fruit  is  sometimes  used  as  a  preserve. 

There  are  three  nutmeg  harvests  in  a  year — April,  July,  and 
November.  The  fruit  is  gathered  by  means  of  a  hook  on  a  long 
stick.  The  fleshy  part  and  the  mace  are  removed ;  then  the  nut- 
megs, in  their  shells,  are  dried  over  a  slow  fire  for  about  two 
months.  The  nuts  will  then  rattle  in  the  shell,  and  the  shells  are 
broken  with  mallets,  and  the  kernels,  or  real  nutmegs,  taken  out. 

Nutmegs  which  have  a  white,  chalky  appearance,  have  been  dip- 
ped in  lime-water  to  preserve  them  from  insects.  Nutmegs  sent 
from  the  island  of  Penang,  where  immense  quantities  are  culti- 
vated, are  seldom  soaked  in  lime-water. 

A  good  tree  will  yield  from  ten  to  fourteen  pounds  of  nutmegs 
and  mace.  The  trees  commence  bearing  when  about  nine  years 
old,  and  sometimes  live  to  the  age  of  seventy-five  years.  What 
are  the  chief  qualities  of  nutmegs  ? 

Mace  is  dried  in  the  sun,  then  sprinkled  with  sea-water,  after 
which  it  is  ready  for  the  market.  What  are  the  principal  quali- 
ties of  mace  ? 

Is  mace  a  vegetable  substance  ? 

Write  on  your  slates  all  you  have  learned  about  nutmegs  and 
mace.  Tell  me  where  they  grow  ;  how  prepared  for  market ;  their 
qualities,  uses,  etc. 

GINGER. 

"Where  it  Grows. — The  ginger -plant,  though  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  is  now  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  some  of 
the  warm  portions  of  America.  It  is  a  kind  of  reed,  growing  in 
a  moist  soil,  from  two  to  three  feet  high.  It  has  a  fleshy  stem, 
which  grows  under  ground,  like  that  of  the  iris,  or  sweet-flag. 

These  fleshy  root-stocks  are  dug  up  annually  after  the  stems 
wither.  The  digging  usually  takes  place  in  January  and  Febru- 
ary. They  are  cleaned,  then  gradually  scalded  in  hot  water ;  then 
they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  until  thoroughly  dried.  Afterward 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  143 

they  are  put  into  bags  which  hold  about  one  hundred  pounds 
each,  and  sent  to  market.  For  making  preserved  ginger  the 
plants  need  to  be  only  about  four  months  old ;  but  for  the  dried 
ginger  they  must  be  a  year  old. 

"White  Ginger  is  prepared  by  washing  and  scraping  each  root, 
and  drying  it  in  the  air  without  scalding. 

Preserved  Ginger  is  made  from  the  young  root-stocks,  after 
they  have  been  washed  and  scalded  till  tender ;  then  they  are 
put  into  jars  and  covered  with  a  thin  sirup,  which  is  poured  off 
after  a  few  days,  and  a  thicker  sirup  added.  This  last  sirup  is 
also  p^oured  off,  and  a  still  thicker  one  put  on.  Sometimes  this 
process  is  repeated  four  times.  These  discarded  sirups  are  di- 
luted with  water,  and  used  as  a  cooling  drink. 

Ginger  is  pungent,  aromatic,  and  fibrous. 

Now  write  on  your  slates  all  the  facts  you  can  remember  about 
ginger — what  it  is ;  where  it  grows ;  how  gathered ;  how  prepared 
for  market ;  its  qualities,  uses,  etc. 

» 

* 

CINNAMON. 

"Where  it  Grows. — The  cinnamon-tree  is  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Ceylon,  but  grows  in  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  While  it 
will  grow  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  it  is  allowed  to 
reach  only  about  ten  feet  under  cultivation.  Numerous  shoots 
spring  from  the  same  root ;  these  are  cut,  when  from  a  half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  into  lengths  of  about  three 
feet  each,  to  be  convenient  for  peeling.  The  time  for  cutting  the 
shoots  is  between  May  and  October.  The  sticks  are  taken  to  a 
shed  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  the  bark  is  cut  open  length- 
wise two  or  three  times,  according  to  its  size.  Next  day  the  bark 
is  easily  removed  in  strips.  Then  it  is  soaked,  and  the  outer  skin 
or  bark  is  removed ;  after  which,  it  is  first  placed  in  the  shade, 
and  lastly  in  the  sun,  where  it  dries  and  rolls  up  into  quills,  as  we 
find  it  in  the  stores. 

Around  the  places  where  the  peeling  of  the  bark  is  carried  on 
a  most  exquisite  aroma  is  diffused.  The  best  cinnamon  is  that 


144:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

peeled  from  the  middle  of  the  shoots — it  is  quite  thin ;  that  which 
comes  from  the  top  of  the  branch  is  next  in  quality ;  and  the  thick 
bark  from  the  base  is  the  poorest. 

The  tree  blossoms  in  January.  The  flowers  grow  in  clusters 
much  like  those  of  the  lilac.  The  berries  are  no  larger  than 
small  pease,  and  when  boiled  they  yield  an  oil  which  becomes 
hard  like  wax  when  cold.  This  cinnamon  wax  is  sometimes  made 
into  candles  for  the  use  of  the  court. 

From  the  roots  a  species  of  camphor  may  be  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation ;  from  the  leaves  and  the  broken  pieces  of  bark  cinnamon 
oil  is  distilled. 

The  bark  of  cinnamon  is  pungent  and  aromatic.  It  is  chiefly 
used  for  domestic  purposes. 

Write  on  your  slates  the  names  of  all  the  pungent  substances 
about  which  you  have  had  lessons.  Name  those  that  are  aromatic 
also.  Name  those  that  are  fragrant.  Name  other  substances  that 
are  pungent ;  that  are  aromatic ;  that  are  fragrant. 

Tell  what  cinnamon  is — where  and  how  obtained ;  its  uses,  etc. 

SAGO. 

Did  you  ever  see  any  sago?  What  is  done  with  it?  How 
many  of  you  have  eaten  sago  pudding  ? 

What  is  Sago  ? — I  will  show  you  a  sample  of  pearl  sago,  such 
as  is  commonly  used  in  this  country.  It  is  a  kind  of  starch  made 
from  the  pith  of  the  sago  palm,  which  grows  most  abundantly  in 
the  East  Indies.  This  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thir- 
ty feet,  and  from  five  to  six  feet  in  circumference.  It  is  usually 
cut  for  obtaining  the  sago  when  about  fourteen  years  old. 

How  Sago  is  Obtained. — The  trunk  of  the  sago  palm  consists 
of  great  numbers  of  thread-like  fibres  passing  up  through  its  en- 
tire length,  and  between  these  fibres  is  a  soft  substance  which 
readily  crumbles  into  a  kind  of  meal  when  dried.  From  this 
meal-like  substance  the  sago  is  prepared. 

The  tree  is  cut  down  just  before  the  flower-buds  open,  and  the 
trunk  is  cut  into  pieces  of  about  six  feet  in  length  ;  the  outer 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  145 

coating  or  bark  is  removed ;  each  piece  is  put  into  a  bag  made 
of  plantain-leaf  (these  bundles  weigh  about  thirty  pounds  each), 
and  these  sago  bundles  are  sent  to  Singapore  and  China,  where 
pearl  sago  is  principally  manufactured. 

These  sago  bags  are  washed,  pounded,  and  scraped,  to  remove 
all  the  meal  from  the  woody  fibres.  This  meal  or  flour  is  soaked, 
washed,  strained,  drained,  dried,  passed  through  a  sieve,  and  again 
dried  over  a  fire.  A  single  palm  will  produce  from  three  hundred 
to  five  hundred  pounds  of  meal. 

Common  sago-meal  is  made  into  cakes  and  baked.  Sometimes 
it  is  boiled  until  it  forms  a  thick  glutinous  mass,  and  is  then  eaten 
by  the  natives  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago.  These  sago  cakes 
will  keep  for  a  long  time. 

Now  take  your  slates  and  write  answers  to  the  following  ques- 
tions :  What  is  sago  ?  Where  does  the  sago  palm  grow  ?  How 
is  sago  manufactured  ?  Write  any  other  facts  about  it  4hat  you 
remember.  Tell  what  kind  of  substance  it  is. 


TAPIOCA. 

Did  you  ever  eat  tapioca  pudding  ?  Would  you  like  to  know 
what  tapioca  is  ? 

Tapioca  is  made  from  the  root  of  a  poisonous  plant  called  man 
dioca.  This  plant  holds  an  important  place  in  the  materials  for 
the  food  of  Brazil.  Its  root  is  remarkable  for  being  highly  nu- 
tritious, and  also  containing  a  deadly  poison.  This  plant  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Brazil.  Its  root  is  very  large,  sometimes 
weighing  twenty  or  thirty  pounds ;  in  shape  it  is  somewhat  like 
the  parsnip,  and  of  a  fibrous  texture. 

How  Tapioca  is  Prepared. — In  the  process  of  preparation  for 
food,  the  roots  are  first  boiled  and  the  skin  removed ;  then  the 
root  is  pulverized  by  means  of  a  grater.  The  pulpy  material  is 
then  placed  in  sacks,  put  under  a  press,  and  the  poisonous  juice 
squeezed  .out.  The  pulp  is  removed  from  the  sack,  broken  in 
pieces,  and  heated  until  it  is  dry.  In  this  state  it  constitutes  the 
iiiandioca  or  cassava  meal,  which  is  white,  but  coarse.  It  is  made 

7 


146  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

into  thin  cakes  similar  to  pancakes,  and  baked.  When  dry  and 
crisp  they  are  cooled,  then  packed  away  for  future  use.  This 
meal  is  used  in  many  forms  of  food  for  the  Brazilian  tables. 

When  the  poisonous  juice  is  squeezed  out,  fine  particles  of  the 
meal,  or  starch,  pass  out  with  it.  This  starch  is  allowed  to  settle, 
the  juice  is  poured  off,  then  the  starch  is  washed  several  times, 
and  afterward  dried  over  a  slow  fire,  which  drives  out  all  the 
poisonous  properties,  and  forms  that  semi-transparent  substance 
which  we  know  as  tapioca,  from  which  such  excellent  puddings 
are  made. 

Here  is  some  of  the  tapioca  as  it  appears  when  sent  to  market. 

Now  write  on  your  slates  answers  to  the  following  questions: 
Where  is  tapioca  obtained?  What  is  it  made  from?  How  is 
it  prepared?  What  effect  does  heat  have  on  it?  For  what  is  it 
used  ?  What  kind  of  a  substance  is  it  ? 

SUGAR. 

Introduction. — The  lesson  may  be  introduced  by  a  conversa- 
tion in  which  the  answers  of  the  pupils  suggest  succeeding  ques- 
tions, somewhat  as  follows : 

If  you  had  some  candy,  what  would  you  do  with  it?  Why  do 
you  eat  candy  ?  What  makes  candy  sweet  ?  Where  do  we  get 
sugar?  Does  sugar  grow,  or  is  it  made?  What  is  sugar  made 
from  ? 

Is  sugar  an  animal  or  a  vegetable  substance  ?  Why  do  you  call 
it  a  vegetable  substance  ?  From  what  vegetables  is  sugar  made  ? 
What  part  of  the  sugar-cane  is  used  to  make  sugar  ?  What  part 
of  the  maple-tree  is  used  to  make  sugar  ?  What  is  done  with  the 
sap,  or  juice,  to  make  sugar?  Did  you  ever  see  any  one  make 
sugar  ? 

About  Making  Sugar.  —  Most  of  the  sugars,  molasses,  and 
sirups  used  in  this  country  are  made  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar- 
cane, which  grows  abundantly  in  some  of  the  Southern  States, 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  or  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  sugar-maple,  a  forest  tree  common  in  the  North- 
ern States  and  in  Canada. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  147 

The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  also  the  sap  of  the  maple,  are 
boiled,  to  evaporate  the  water,  then  strained,  skimmed,  and  clari- 
fied, to  make  it  pure ;  and  then  boiled  again  until  it  becomes  a 
thick,  sweet  sirup  for  molasses;  or  if  sugar  is  to  be  produced, 
the  sirup  is  boiled  longer,  until  it  will  granulate  or  crystallize  as 
it  cools. 

About  Raising  Sugar-cane. — Sugar-cane  is  raised  chiefly  from 
cuttings.  For  the  purpose  of  planting,  the  top  joints  of  the  cane 
are  used.  The  cane  is  cultivated  in  rows  from  four  to  six  feet 
apart,  with  the  plants  about  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The 
roots  of  the  cane  live  for  several  years,  but  deteriorate  after  a  few 
years ;  therefore  fresh  cuttings  are  usually  planted  each  year  in  a 
part  of  the  plantation.  The  planting  is  done  in  the  fall.  The 
time  required  for  the  cane  to  ripen  differs,  with  the  variety  of  the 
plant,  from  ten  to  fifteen  months. 

Each  root  usually  sends  up  several  stalks,  somewhat  resembling 
broom-corn,  which  grow  from  six  to  fifteen  feet  in  height.  It 
arrives  at  maturity  in  a  little  more  than  a  year.  When  the  cane 
is  ripe — which  is  generally  from  February  to  April — it  is  cut  near 
to  the  ground,  the  leaves  are  stripped  off,  and  the  stalks  are  cut 
into  convenient  lengths  to  be  taken  to  the  crushing-mill,  where 
they  are  squeezed  between  iron  rollers.  The  strained  juice  flows 
into  a  large  vessel,  ready  to  be  manufactured  into  sugar. 

About  Obtaining  Sap  from  Sugar-maple. — When  warm  days 
of  spring  cause  the  sap  of  the  sugar-maple  to  begin  ascending  to 
supply  the  buds  with  nourishment,  a  hole  of  about  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter is  bored  into  the  tree,  from  one  to  two  inches  deep ;  and 
just  below  the  hole,  or  in  it,  a  small  spout  is  fixed  to  convey  the 
sap  into  a  tub  or  trough.  When  the  nights  are  cold,  and  the  days 
sunny  and  warm,  a  pail  of  sap  may  be  obtained  from  each  tree 
daily.  The  sap  is  gathered  in  buckets,  carried  to  the  sugar-camp, 
which  is  generally  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  maple  grove,  and 
there  it  is  boiled  into  sirup.  About  40,000,000  pounds  of  maple 
sugar  are  made  in  the  United  States  and  Canadas  each  year. 

Large  quantities  of  sugar  are  consumed  annually.  Probably 
200,000  tons  are  used  in  the  United  States ;  and  in  all  the  coun- 


148  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

tries  of  the  world  together,  about  two  and  a  half  millions  of  tons 
of  sugar  are  made  and  consumed  each  year.  About  ten-twelfths 
of  this  amount  is  made  from  some  kind  of  sugar-cane. 

Beet  Sugar. — In  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany  sugar  is  man- 
ufactured from  the  sugar-beet ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  at  least 
350,000,000  pounds  of  beet  sugar  are  manufactured  annually  in 
Europe. 

Now  take  your  slates  and  write  the  necessary  facts  about  sugar 
to  complete  the  following  statements,  and  also  add  other  facts 
concerning  it : 

Sugar  is  made  from ,  and  of .  The  sap  of  the 

maple  is  obtained  in ,  by .  It  is  made  into  mo- 
lasses and  sugar  by . 

The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane  is  obtained  by .  It  is  made 

into  sugar  by  .  In  some  countries  sugar  is  also  made 

from . 

Each  year  about pounds  of  sugar  are  consumed . 


COFFEE. 

What  is  coffee?  What  is  this  kind  of  drink  made  from? 
Where  does  the  coffee-bean  grow?  How  many  would  like  to 
learn  more  about  coffee  ? 

Coffee-tree. — The  coffee-tree  is  a  native  of  Arabia,  and  the  use 
of  its  berries,  it  is  supposed,  was  discovered  by  the  Arabs.  This 
tree  is  now  cultivated  extensively  in  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  in  South  America.  It  flourishes  best  in  elevated  regions  of 
warm  countries. 

The  trees  are  usually  raised  from  seed  sown  in  nursery-grounds. 
The  young  plants  are  set  in  rows  on  the  coffee  plantation,  from 
five  to  ten  feet  apart.  The  trees  are  also  raised  from  slips.  The 
tree  attains  the  height  of  six  or  twelve  feet,  according  to  the  con~ 
dition  of  the  soil  and  climate.  It  begins  to  bear  when  two  or 
three  years  old,  and  continues  bearing  twenty  or  thirty  years. 
The  leaves  are  evergreen,  and  somewhat  like  those  of  the  laurel. 
The  blossoms  are  white,  and  resemble  the  flowers  of  the  jasmine. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  149 

Fruit  and  Seeds. — The  fruit  of  the  coffee-tree  is  a  red  berry 
which  resembles  a  cherry.  The  pulp  encloses  two  oval  seeds,  each 
with  a  convex  and  a  flat  side,  which  grow  with  the  flat  faces  to- 
gether. When  ripe,  the  berries  are  picked  by  hand  on  some  plan- 
tations ;  on  others,  cloths  are  spread  beneath  the  trees,  and  the 
ripe  fruit  shaken  off.  Some  planters  remove  the  pulp  by  a  pulp- 
mill  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  gathered,  then  wash  and  dry  the 
seeds.  Some  planters  allow  the  berries  to  dry  for  a  few  weeks ; 
after  which  the  husk  and  dry  pulp  is  separated  from  the  seeds 
by  a  mill. 

After  the  pulp  has  been  removed,  and  the  seeds  are  dry,  they 
are  passed  through  a  mill  to  remove  the'  membranous  skin  that 
surrounds  the  kernel.  The  beans,  as  these  seeds  are  commonly 
called,  are  afterward  packed  in  bags  ready  for  the  market. 

Here  are  a  few  coffee-beans  for  you  to  examine.  What  differ- 
ences do  you  observe  in  them  ? 

The  yellowish  and  the  greenish  beans  are  just  as  they  came 
from  the  coffee  plantations ;  the  brown  beans  have  been  roasted, 
and  are  ready  to  be  ground,  and  now  the  beverage  known  as 
coffee  may  be  prepared  from  it. 

Kinds  of  Coffee. — The  bean  of  the  Mocha  coffee  is  small,  and 
dark  yellow.  It  comes  from  Eastern  Turkey  and  Arabia.  The 
bean  of  the  Java  coffee  is  larger,  and  a  pale  yellow.  This  comes 
from  Java,  and  other  islands  of  the  East  Indies.  The  bean  of  the 
Rio  coffee,  also  that  of  the  West  India  coffee,  has  a  greenish-gray 
tint.  The  flavor  of  the  Mocha  coffee  is  considered  superior  to 
that  of  the  other  kinds. 

It  is  estimated  that  600,000,000  pounds  of  coffee  are  raised  in 
the  world  annually. 

To  which  class  of  substances  does  coffee  belong  ? 

Now  take  your  slates  and  state — where  coffee  was  first  found ; 
where  it  is  now  raised ;  how  it  grows ;  how  it  is  prepared  for 
market;  how  the  beans  are  prepared  for  making  the  coffee  we 
drink ;  the  names  of  different  kinds  of  coffee ;  and  how  much  is 
raised  annually. 


150  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

SALT. 

Kinds  of  Salt. — In  giving  a  lesson  on  salt,  samples  of  different 
kinds  of  salt  should  be  shown  the  pupils,  as  table-salt,  bay-salt,  or 
Turk's  Island  salt,  rock-salt.  Let  the  pupils  examine  each  kind 
by  feeling,  by  observing  the  differences  in  the  forms  of  the  crys- 
tals, and  by  taste.  The  natural  shape  of  a  salt-crystal  is  a  cube, 
but  these  combine  into  forms  somewhat  like  a  hollow  pyramid, 
or  hopper-shaped.  When  the  water  is  evaporated  rapidly  by  fire, 
the  crystals  are  small ;  the  slow  evaporation  by  the  sun  produces 
large  crystals. 

Its  Solubility. — Let  the  pupils  see  that  salt  is  soluble  in  cold 
water  as  readily  as  in  hot  water ;  that  it  is  not  soluble  in  alcohol ; 
that  it  will  crystallize  by  evaporation.  Require  them  to  tell  its 
common  uses. 

Tell  the  pupils  that  salt  is  necessary  to  both  animals  and  vege- 
tables ;  that  vegetables  absorb  it  from  the  soil ;  that  food  would 
not  digest  without  salt;  that  it  is  always  present  in  the  blood. 
It  is  composed  of  two  substances:  one,  sodium,  a  metal  which  has 
such  affinity  for  oxygen  that  it  will  take  fire  and  burn  by  throw- 
ing it  upon  warm  water ;  the  other,  chlorine,  a  gas  which  would 
suffocate  us  if  we  should  breathe  it  clear.  These  two  substances, 
when  combined,  are  called  chloride  of  sodium,  which  *is  the  chemi- 
cal name  for  common  salt. 

How  Obtained.  —  Salt  is  obtained  by  evaporating  salt-water, 
and  by  digging  it  from  salt-mines,  in  which  form  it  is  called  rock- 
salt.  Most  of  the  salt  used  in  this  country  is  obtained  from  salt- 
water. It  is  known  as  table-salt,  or  common  salt.  Bay-salt  and 
Turk's  Island  salt  are  manufactured  by  evaporating  sea-water  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  Each  gallon  of  sea-water  contains  about  four 
ounces  of  salt. 

Where  Pound. — The  most  extensive  salt-springs  from  which 
salt  is  manufactured  are  those  at  Salina  and  Syracuse,  in  the  State 
of  New  York.  These  springs  furnish  from  5,000,000  to  6,000,000 
bushels  of  salt  each  year.  The  most  extensive  salt-mines  are 
those  of  Poland,  Europe,  which  are  supposed  to  embrace  a  bed  of 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  151 

solid  salt  500  miles  long,  20  miles  wide,  and  1200  feet  thick.  The 
excavations  are  so  long  and  wide  that  houses,  stables,  storehouses, 
churches,  and  streets  are  cut  out  of  solid  salt.  In  the  chapels  ev- 
erything is  made  of  the  rock-salt — walls,  doors,  altars,  crucifixes, 
pedestals,  and  statues.  The  air  in  these  mines  is  dry,  and  free 
from  bad  gases,  and  everything  is  kept  in  a  perfect  state  of  pres- 
ervation. These  mines  have  been  worked  many  hundreds  of  years. 

In  the  interior  of  Africa  salt  is  not  commonly  found  by  the 
natives,  and  they  will  sell  a  slave  for  a  handful  of  salt.  ^  The  chil- 
dren there  suck  pieces  of  salt  with  as  much  delight  as  boys  and 
girls  do  their  sticks  of  candy  in  this  country. 

Among  the  Arabs  and  Turks  salt  is  a 'symbol  of  fidelity.  A 
man  who  has  partaken  of  salt  with  an  Arab  is  bound  to  him  by 
the  laws  of  hospitality,  and  is  treated  as  a  friend. 

To  which  kind  of  substances  does  salt  belong  ? 

Write  all  you  can  remember  about  salt;  its  kinds,  its  uses; 
how  obtained ;  where  found ;  shape  of  its  crystals ;  about  its  sol- 
ubility;  its  chemical  composition  and  name;  about  the  salt-mines 
of  Poland ;  its  scarcity  in  Africa ;  its  symbol  of  fidelity,  and  other 
facts. 

SODA. 

How  Obtained. — Soda  was  formerly  obtained  from  the  ashes 
of  marine  plants.  It  is  now  manufactured  from  common  salt  by 
the  use  of  acids,  charcoal,  lime,  heat,  and  water.  Large  manufac- 
tories are  engaged  in  the  process  of  compelling  salt,  by  the  aid  of 
the  above  agents,  to  lose  its  saltness  and  become  the  common  soda 
so  extensively  used  for  cleaning  purposes,  for  making  soap,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass. 

Carbonate  of  Soda.  —  This  form  of  soda,  sometimes  called 
"  washing-soda,"  is  known  to  the  chemist  as  carbonate  of  soda ; 
this  is  used  in  making  soap. 

Bicarbonate  of  Soda,  or  hydro-sodic  carbonate,  is  produced  by 
combining  carbonic-acid  gas  with  carbonate  of  soda.  This  form 
of  soda  is  used  in  bread-making,  and  in  the  blue  papers  of  Seidlitz- 
powders ;  the  white  papers  contain  tartaric  acid.  Bicarbonate  of 


152  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

soda  contains  twice  as  much,  carbonic  acid  as  the  carbonate  of  soda 
has.  It  is  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  causes  the  effer- 
vescence produced  by  these  soda  powders. 

Write  about  soda — its  uses ;  how  made ;  different  kinds,  etc. — 
and  state  whether  it  is  a  vegetable  or  a  mineral  substance. 

SOAP. 

Uses. — When  you  wash  your  hands  in  the  play-ground,  can 
you  make  them  as  clean  as  when  you  wash  them  at  home  ?  Why 
not  ?  Why  is  soap  used  ?  When  is  soap  used  ?  Who  uses  soap 
for  washing  clothes  ? 

What  other  substances  are  sometimes  used  in  washing  clothes  ? 
Why  are  soda  and  borax  used  in  washing  clothes  ? 

Qualities. — When  soap  is  put  in  the  water  and  rubbed  about, 
what  happens  to  the  soap?  It  melts.  What  quality  has  any- 
thing that  dissolves  in  water  ?  What  change  is  made  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  water  by  the  soap  ?  How  does  water  feel  that 
has  had  soap  dissolved  in  it  ? 

How  Soap  is  Made. — Soap  is  made  of  fat,  or  oil,  and  an  al- 
kali. Potash  and  soda  are  alkalies.  An  alkali  made  by  soaking 
wood-ashes  in  water  is  called  lye.  An  alkali  has  an  acrid,  hot, 
and  disorganizing  nature.  Carbonate  of  soda  is  not  so  strong  an 
alkali  as  potash,  and  is  less  liable  to  produce  injury. 

The  alkali  decomposes  the  fat  or  oil,  sets  free  the  glycerine  of 
the  oil  (which  dissolves  in  water),  and  the  fatty  acid  unites  with 
the  alkali  and  forms  the  soap.  The  alkali  is  the  chief  agent  in 
cleansing. 

Kinds  of  Soap. — The  kinds  of  soap — named  from  their  condi- 
tion— are  hard  soap  and  soft  soap.  Soft  soaps  are  made  by  using 
potash  or  lye  as  the  alkali.  Hard  soaps  are  made  by  using  soda 
as  the  alkali.  Tallow  will  make  a  harder  soap  than  oil. 

Common  Bar  Soap  is  made  from  fat,  soda,  and  resin. 

Castile  Soap  is  made  from  olive  oil  and  soda,  and  colored  by 
an  oxide  of  iron. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  153 

Fancy  Soaps  are  essentially  common  soaps  mixed  with  differ- 
ent aromatic  oils  and  coloring  substances. 

Soap  cleanses  dirt  from  clothes  by  the  alkali  in  the  soap  dis- 
solving the  oily,  greasy  portion  of  the  dirt,  and  thus  setting  the 
whole  free.  The  ancient  Gauls  made  soap  of  ashes  and  tallow. 
Why  did  they  use  ashes  ? 

Now  write  on  your  slates  all  you  can  remember  about  soap ; 
how  made,  kinds,  qualities,  uses,  etc. 

CANDLES. 

Call  attention  to  the  use  of  candles ;  where  used ;  when  used ; 
other  substances  used  to  give  light.  Show  a  candle ;  let  pupils 
point  out  and  name  its  parts.  "Wick,  made  of  loosely  twisted 
cotton,  extending  lengthwise  through  the  middle  of  the  candle. 
Tallow,  the  yellowish -white  substance  around  the  wick,  which 
melts  wlien  the  candle  is  lighted,  flows  up  the  wick,  burns,  and 
makes  the  light.  Shape  of  the  candle — cylindrical ;  one  end  flat 
and  circular,  the  other  end  tapering  and  conical. 

"What  Candles  are  Made  from. — Candles  are  made  of  tallow, 
spermaceti,  wax,  stearine,  and  paraffine. 

How  Tallow -candles  are  Made. — Tallow  -  candles  are  some- 
times made  by  dipping  the  wicks  into  melted  tallow  many  times, 
allowing  the  tallow  to  harden  after  each  dip.  These  are  known 
as  dipped  candles.  They  are  also  made  by  pouring  melted  tallow 
into  moulds  in  which  the  wicks  have  been  fastened,  and  allowing 
it  to  cool.  These  are  known  as  mould  candles.  Candles  com- 
posed of  other  substances  than  tallow  or  wax  are  generally  made 
in  moulds. 

"Wax -candles  are  made  by  suspending  the  wicks  over  the 
melted  wax,  and  pouring  the  wax  repeatedly  over  the  wicks  until 
they  attain  the  desired  size. 

Spermaceti  is  a  white,  semi-transparent  substance  found  in  the 
head  of  the  sperm-whale. 

Wax,  the  substance  made  by  bees  from  which  the  comb  is 

7* 


154  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

formed.     This  is  melted  and  strained  to  form  wax  for  candles. 
Wax-candles  are  the  most  expensive  of  all  kinds  of  light. 

Stearine,  or  Stearic  Acid,  is  one  of  the  solid  substances  ob- 
tained when  fats  are  decomposed  by  a  chemical  process.  It  does 
not  feel  greasy,  is  firm,  dry,  and  makes  an  excellent  candle. 

ParafSne  is  a  white,  waxy,  inodorous,  tasteless  substance,  ob- 
tained from  distillation  of  resinous  or  bituminous  materials.  It 
is  obtained  from  oil  of  tar.  It  readily  combines  with  wax,  sper- 
maceti, or  stearine ;  and  when  used  for  making  candles,  it  is  mixed 
with  one  of  these  substances  to  render  it  easier  to  melt  by  the 
heat  of  the  burning  candle. 

The  illuminating  power  of  gas  is  estimated  by  the  number  of 
burning  candles  that  its  light  equals.  The  gas-light  of  one  burn< 
er  generally  equals  the  light  of  fifteen  or  twenty  candles. 

Now  write  what  you  can  remember  about  candles — of  the  ma- 
terials from  which  they  are  made ;  how  candles  are  formed ;  the 
kinds  of  candles  used ;  about  gas-light  as  compared  with  candle- 
light ;  and  any  other  facts. 

PUTTY. 

Can  you  tell  me  what  holds  the  glass  in  a  window  ?  Who 
uses  putty  ?  Is  it  used  for  other  purposes  than  to  hold  glass  in 
windows  ? 

Qualities. — Its  color  is  a  dull  white,  somewhat  like  dough.  It 
feels  soft  and  greasy.  It  can  be  pressed  into  any  shape. 

It  is  adhesive — sticks  to  glass,  wood,  or  any  substance. 

It  hardens  in  air — the  older  the  putty,  the  harder  it  becomes. 

It  is  impervious  to  water,  and  thus  keeps  the  rain  from  coming 
through  windows  at  the  edges  of  the  glass. 

How  Made. — It  is  made  of  whiting  (a  finely-ground  chalk) 
and  boiled  linseed-oil,  kneaded  into  a  doughy  mass  and  beaten 
with  a  mallet. 

CAMPHOR. 

Take  this  vial,  smell  the  liquid  in  it,  and  tell  its  name.  Now 
take  this  semi-transparent  gum ;  notice  its  soft  feeling  and  its 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LESSONS.  155 

odor,  and  tell  me  whether  it  smells  like  the  liquid  in  the  vial. 
What  is  it  ? 

The  liquid  camphor  which  you  see  used  at  home  is  made  by 
dissolving  camphor-gum,  like  this  piece  shown  you,  in  alcohol. 

Where  Found. — The  camphor-gum  is  obtained  from  the  cam- 
phor-tree, which  grows  most  abundantly  on  the  islands  of  Su- 
matra, Borneo,  and  Formosa.  This  tree  often  attains  the  height 
of  one  hundred  feet,  and  is  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  diameter.  The 
camphor-gum  is  found  in  masses,  and  is  obtained  by  splitting  the 
trunk  in  pieces  and  picking  out  the  lumps  with  a  pointed  instru- 
ment. Some  lumps  have  been  found  as  large  as  a  man's  arm ; 
and  some  trees  yield  twenty  pounds  of  gum ;  but  commonly  not 
more  than  half  of  this  amount  is  found  in  one  tree.  Camphor 
is  also  obtained  by  distilling  the  chipped  wood,  and  then  collect- 
ing the  gum  from  the  liquid. 

Camphor-gum  is  soft,  friable,  and  tough  ;  very  volatile,  inflam- 
mable, fragrant,  with  a  strong  odor,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol. 
When  taken  in  large  doses,  it  is  fatally  poisonous.  It  is  also 
destructive  to  insects. 

The  wood  of  the  camphor-tree  is  valuable  for  making  boxes 
and  trunks,  which  will  protect  clothing  kept  in  them  from  insects. 

Write  a  description  of  camphor — its  qualities,  uses,  where  ob- 
tained, etc. 

WHALEBONE. 

Teacher.  What  have  I  in  my  hand  ?  What  can  I  do  with  this 
piece  of  whalebone  ?  Can  you  name  any  of  the  qualities  that 
make  whalebone  useful  ? 

Pupils.  It  is  tough,  fibrous,  flexible,  light,  and  elastic. 

T.  [Shows  the  pupils  a  piece  of  a  cow's  horn,  a  piece  of  bone 
and  of  whalebone.  They  examine  each,  after  which  the  teacher 
asks :]  Which  of  these  two  substances,  the  horn  or  the  bone,  does 
the  whalebone  most  resemble  ? 

P.  The  horn. 

T.  That  which  we  call  whalebone  is  not  a  true  bone ;  it  is  not 
a  part  of  the  common  bones  in  the  body  of  the  whale.  It  is 


156  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

found  in  the  mouth  of  the  Greenland  whale.  It  is  a  horny  sub- 
stance, composed  of  many  layers  of  fibrous  plates,  which  form 
a  compact  mass  where  they  are  attached  to  the  upper  jaw ;  but 
as  they  extend  downward  from  six  to  twelve  feet,  they  become 
divided  into  coarse,  loose  fibres,  forming  a  fringe-like  enclosure 
along  the  sides  of  the  mouth.  This  fringe  does  not  extend  across 
the  front  of  the  mouth.  There  are  about  three  hundred  of  these 
blades  on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  each  of  which  is  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  wide  at  its  root,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  thick. 
About  one  ton  of  whalebone  is  sometimes  obtained  from  the 
mouth  of  a  single  whale.  It  varies  in  quantity  and  length  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  animal. 

Its  Use  to  the  Whale.  —  The  food  of  this  whale  consists  of 
small  shrimps,  crabs,  fishes,  mollusks,  and  other  soft-bodied  animals 
which  congregate  in  shoals  of  millions  in  the  waters  frequented 
by  the  Greenland  and  other  whales  of  this  kind.  The  whale  feeds 
by  swimming  through  shoals  of  these  minute  animals  with  its 
capacious  mouth  open,  allowing  the  sea-water,  swarming  with  its 
food,  to  pass  in  and  flow  out  through  the  back  and  sides  of  the 
mouth ;  but  the  multitudes  of  small  animals  are  retained  in  the 
mouth  by  the  great  fringe  strainer  of  whalebone ;  thus  the  whale 
is  enabled  to  capture  its  prey  by  means  of  the  great  whalebone 
fringes  which  line  its  mouth. 

Its  Uses  to  Us. — Whalebone  may  be  softened  by  boiling  it, 
and  then  it  can  be  cut  easily  into  such  shapes  as  are  needed  for 
its  various  uses.  On  cooling,  it  becomes  harder,  and  of  a  darker 
color  than  before  boiling.  It  is  used  for  stretchers  of  umbrellas 
and  parasols ;  it  is  split  into  fibres  and  used  for  brushes,  in  place 
of  coarse  bristles ;  for  framework  of  bonnets ;  for  stiffening  stays 
and  waists  of  dresses;  for  whip-handles,  and  various  other  pur- 
poses in  which  elasticity  is  a  needed  property. 

Since  the  capturing  of  whales  for  their  oil  has  diminished  so 
greatly,  whalebone  has  become  scarce  and  dearer. 

Write  all  you  can  about  whalebone;  what  it  is ;  where  it  is  ob- 
tained ;  its  use  to  the  whale ;  its  value  and  uses  to  us ;  its  quali- 
ties, etc. 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS.  157 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS. 

COTTON. 

Its  Uses. — For  thread ;  for  various  kinds  of  cloth — as  sheet- 
ing, drilling,  jean,  cotton  or  Canton  flannel,  gingham,  calico,  chintz, 
muslin,  tarlatan,  lace,  hosiery,  paper. 

What  is  Cotton? — A  soft,  downy  substance  resembling  very 
fine  wool,  which  grows  in  pods  of  the  cotton-plant  in  warm  coun- 
tries. 

How  it  is  Obtained. — The  seeds  of  the  cotton-plants  are  sown 
in  rows,  four  or  five  feet  apart,  late  in  March  or  in  April.  The 
plants  generally  grow  from  four  to  six  feet  high.  The  blossoms 
are  of  a  pale  yellow  or  a  faint  purplish  color.  The  pods  contain- 
ing the  cotton  fibre  ripen  and  burst  open  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber, after  which  the  cotton  is  picked  from  the  plant. 

The  cotton  seeds  adhere  to  the  cotton  fibre  when  it  is  picked, 
and  the  first  step  toward  manufacture  consists  in  separating  the 
seeds  from  the  fibre.  This  is  done  by  a  machine  called  a  cotton- 
gin.  After  this  process  the  cotton  is  packed  in  bales  of  several 
hundred  pounds  each,  and  sent  to  market,  from  whence  it  is  taken 
to  manufactories  to  be  spun  into  yarn,  and  woven  into  different 
kinds  of  cotton  goods.  Where  is  the  cotton  raised  in  the  United 
States  taken  to  be  manufactured  ? 

Qualities  that  make  Cotton  Useful. — Its  fine,  long,  and  strong 
fibres.  The  long  and  strong  fibres  make  the  thread  and  cloth 
strong.  Its  fine,  strong  fibres  make  excellent  thread.  Its  fibre 
is  not  as  strong  as  that  of  flax. 

"Where  Cotton  is  Raised. — In  the  warm  portions  of  the  United 
States,  West  Indies,  South  America,  Africa,  India,  and  China.  It 
is  most  extensively  raised  in  the  United  States. 

Require  the  pupils  to  write  out  a  statement  of  all  the  important 
facts  presented  in  this  lesson,  and  to  read  the  statements  before 
the  class.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  each  of  the  succeed- 
ing lessons. 


158  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

FLAX. 

What  is  Flax  ? — The  strong  fibre  of  an  annual  plant,  with  a 
slender  stalk,  which  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  covered 
with  a  strong,  fibrous  bark.  The  seed  of  the  flax-plant  is  sown 
in  the  spring ;  the  plant  bears  small,  blue  blossoms  in  June  and 
July,  and  is  ready  for  gathering  in  August — which  is  done  by 
pulling  it  up  by  the  roots  and  tying  it  in  small  bundles. 

How  Flax  is  Obtained. — The  small  bundles  of  the  plant  are 
placed  on  wet  meadows,  or  under  water,  where*  the  gluten  is  soak- 
ed out,  and  the  woody  stem  becomes  brittle  by  partially  rotting. 
The  plant  is  afterward  dried,  then  the  woody  stems  are  broken  by 
a  machine  and  beaten  out.  The  fibre  is  then  combed  by  draw- 
ing it  over  an  instrument  with  long  iron  teeth,  or  spikes,  set  in 
a  board,  which  forms  a  sort  of  comb,  called  a  hatchel  or  hacJde. 
By  this  combing  process  the  coarser  fibres  are  separated  from  the 
fine  and  soft  ones,  and  the  flax  is  made  ready  for  spinning. 

Uses  of  Flax. — It  is  used  for  strong  thread  for  sewing  cloth, 
carpets,  and  leather,  for  fish-lines,  cords,  and  for  linen  goods. 

Names  of  Goods  made  from  Flax. — Linen  thread,  tape,  dam- 
ask, white  linen,  brown  linen,  cambric,  lawn,  towels,  handkerchiefs. 

Qualities  that  make  Flax  UsefoL — Its  fibre  is  very  long,  strong, 
and  durable. 

"Where  it  is  Raised. — It  is  grown  most  extensively  in  Ireland, 
but  is  also  raised  in  Scotland,  England,  Holland,  France,  Belgium, 
Russia,  and  other  portions  of  Europe ;  also  in  the  United  States. 

HEMP. 

What  is  Hemp  ? — The  hemp-plant  is  native  of  Asia,  but  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Russia,  and  is  grown  also  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  The  plant  is  an  annual,  which 
grows  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  Hemp  is  the  fibre  of  this 
plant.  It  is  coarser  and  stronger  than  that  of  flax.  If  carefully 
examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  each  coarse  fibre  is  composed  of 
several  minute  ones  twisted  spirally. 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS.  159 

How  it  is  Procured. — The  hemp -is  obtained  by  rotting  the 
woody  stem  of  the  plant,  breaking  it,  and  then  beating  it  out, 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  with  flax. 

What  is  Made  of  it  ? — Cords,  ropes,  and  cables ;  sacking,  and 
various  kinds  of  coarse,  strong  cloth. 

WOOL. 

"What  is  Made  of  Wool. — Yarns,  worsteds,  flannels,  blankets, 
shawls,  broadcloth,  tweed,  and  other  kinds  of  cloth  ;  merino,  car- 
pets, rugs,  mats,  drugget,  baize,  hosiery,  felt,  and  many  other  arti- 
cles of  woollen  goods. 

What  is  Wool  ? — By  the  term  wool  is  commonly  meant  the 
fleecy  covering  of  sheep,  which  is  sheared  from  them  early  in 
summer.  This  name  is  also  given  to  the  covering  of  some  kinds 
of  goats,  as  the  Cashmere  and  Angora  goat,  of  Asia ;  and  to  the 
Llama  and  Guanaco  of  South  America.  The  Cashmere  goat  has 
a  double  covering — one  of  long,  coarse  hair,  and  underneath  this 
one  of  fine,  soft  wool,  from  which  expensive  shawls  are  made. 
The  wool  of  the  Alpaca  Llama  is  fine,  silky,  and  long.  It  is  used 
for  alpaca  goods  and  other  materials. 

Wool  is  raised  in  nearly  all  countries.  The  most  extensive 
manufactories  of  cloths  and  other  woollen  goods  are  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

What  kind  of  a  substance  is  wool  ? 

SILK. 

Its  Uses. — It  is  used  for  sewing-silk,  ribbons,  handkerchiefs, 
dress-silk,  satin,  velvet,  curtains,  furniture-covering,  hosiery,  gloves, 
gauze,  crape. 

What  is  Silk  ? — Silk  is  the  fine  glossy  web  of  the  silk-worm. 
It  is  stronger  than  the  web  of  the  spider.  The  silk-worm  spins 
this  web  around  itself,  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  case  called  a  co- 
coon, before  changing  into  a  moth.  The  cocoons  are  about  one 
inch  long,  and  two-thirds  of  an  inch  thick.  What  kind  of  a  sub- 
stance is  silk  ? 


ICO  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

About  the  Silk-worm. — The  silk-worm  is  an  insect  in  the 
form  of  a  caterpillar.  It  is  hatched,  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun, 
from  an  egg  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head ;  and  it  attains  the  full 
size — two  to  three  inches  long — in  about  eight  weeks.  During 
this  time  it  changes  its  skin  four  or  five  times.  As  the  old  skin 
becomes  too  small,  it  bursts  near  the  head,  and  the  caterpillar 
crawls  out  with  a  new  dress.  At  each  change  of  its  skin  the  size 
increases. 

The  silk-worm  feeds  on  mulberry-leaves  while  it  is  growing. 
After  eating  and  growing  for  about  eight  weeks,  the  worm  stops 
eating  and  begins  to  spin,  and  continues  spinning  for  about  five 
days.  While  spinning,  it  moves  its  head  from  side  to  side,  as  if 
winding  the  fine  silk  about ;  and  the  worm  grows  shorter  as  it 
spins,  and  winds  itself  inside  of  the  cocoon. 

It  next  changes  into  a  chrysalis,  in  a  dark-brown  case,  within 
the  cocoon.  In  this  condition  it  remains  torpid  for  two  or  three 
weeks ;  then  it  changes  into  a  moth,  makes  a  hole  in  the  cocoon 
by  softening  the  threads  with  a  fluid,  comes  out,  lays  eggs,  and 
soon  dies. 

How  Silk  is  Obtained. — In  about  ten  days  after  the  cocoons 
are  finished,  the  insect  must  be  killed,  to  prevent  it  from  making 
a  hole  in  the  cocoon,  and  coming  out  in  the  form  of  a  moth.  To 
do  this  they  are  placed  in  a  heated  oven  before  the  time  for  the 
chrysalis  to  change  to  the  moth,  and  thus  the  insect  is  killed. 

The  cocoons  are  next  put  in  hot  water,  which  dissolves  the  gum 
and  loosens  the  thread.  The  whole  is  now  stirred  with  a  bunch 
of  twigs,  which  catch  the  loose  ends  of  the  threads.  Several  of 
these  are  taken  together,  to  make  them  strong  enough  to  handle 
and  wind  upon  a  reel.  The  silk  is  taken  from  the  reel,  and  tied 
up  into  hanks  ready  for  the  manufacturer.  In  this  state  it  is 
called  raw  silk.  These  hanks  of  raw  silk  are  placed  on  a  six-sided 
reel,  or  swift,  and  wound  on  bobbins.  The  silk  is  now  sorted  ac- 
cording to  its  fineness  and  quality,  and  then  is  ready  for  spinning 
or  twisting. 

This  raw  silk  is  sent  to  a  mill,  where  two  or  more  threads  are 
twisted  together,  and  prepared  for  weaving  and  other  purposes. 
Manufacturers  usually  purchase  silk  in  the  raw  state. 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS.  161 

Before  the  silk  is  ready  for  weaving  it  must  be  cleansed  by 
boiling  it  in  soapy  water.  The  color  is  now  yellow.  To  make 
silk  white,  it  must  be  bleached ;  to  give  it  other  colors,  it  must 
be  dyed. 

The  web  of  a  single  cocoon  is  from  three  to  five  hundred  yards 
in  length.  About  one  pound  of  good  raw  silk  is  obtained  from 
twelve  pounds  of  cocoons. 

Where  Silk  is  Raised. — Silk  is  raised  in  China,  Japan,  and 
some  other  places  in  Asia ;  in  Italy,  France,  and  other  countries 
of  Europe ;  in  South  America,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Silk  goods  are  most  extensively  manufactured  in  France. 

Articles  Made  of  Silk.  —  Silk  for  sewing;  twist  for  button- 
holes ;  ribbons ;  silks,  plain,  figured,  etc. ;  satin,  crape,  velvet, 
gauze,  handkerchiefs,  shawls,  stockings,  gloves,  poplins,  etc. 

LEATHER. 

Its  Uses. — Leather,  in  different  forms,  is  used  for  making  boots, 
shoes,  gloves,  mittens,  harnesses,  trunks,  valises,  book-binding,  cush- 
ions ;  seats  for  chairs,  cars,  and  carriages ;  covers  for  carriages ; 
cases,  belts  for  machinery,  washers,  hose  for  fire-engines ;  parch- 
ment, on  which  valuable  documents  were  formerly  written. 

Kinds  of  Leather. — Calf-skin,  kip,  cow-hide,  morocco,  patent- 
leather,  kid,  Russia-leather,  harness-leather,  sole-leather,  sheep-skin, 
buck-skin,  seal-skin,  dog-skin,  vellum,  parchment. 

From  what  the  Kinds  of  Leather  are  Made.  —  Calf-  skin  is 
made  from  the  skins  of  calves  not  more  than  six  months  old ; 
kip  leather,  from  the  skins  of  young  cattle,  older  than  calves; 
cow  -  hide,  from  the  skins  of  young  cows;  sole -leather,  from  the 
skins  of  the  ox,  also  of  the  old  cow ;  morocco,  from  the  skins  of 
goats ;  kid,  from  the  skins  of  kids  that  are  killed  when  too  young 
to  eat  grass ;  patent-leather,  a  kind  of  leather  covered  with  a  japan 
that  gives  it  a  smooth  surface  and  a  permanent  polish ;  Russia- 
leather  is  made  from  the  skins  of  calves,  cows,  goats,  sheep,  etc., 
by  a  special  process  of  tanning,  in  which  are  used  willow-bark, 
red  sandal-wood,  and  an  oil,  prepared  from  birch-bark,  that  im- 
parts to  this  leather  its  peculiar  odor,  and  renders  it  repulsive  to 


162  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

insects ;  sheep-skin,  made  from  the  skin  of  the  sheep ;  buck-skin, 
from  the  skin  of  the  deer ;  dog-skin,  from  the  skin  of  the  dog ; 
seal-skin,  from  the  skin  of  the  seal ;  harness-leather,  from  thick 
ox-hide ;  parchment,  from  the  skins  of  sheep  and  goats ;  vellum, 
from  the  skin  of  young  calves,  tanned  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  parchment. 

How  Common  Leather  is  Tanned. — The  process  of  tanning 
implies  saturating  the  skins  of  animals  with  an  astringent  vegeta- 
ble substance,  called  tannin,  so  thoroughly  that  it  becomes  insolu- 
ble, and  incapable  of  putrefaction. 

Skins  are  prepared  for  tanning  by  first  soaking  them  in  lime- 
water,  to  loosen  the  hair  and  the  outer  membrane ;  then  they  are 
scraped,  to  remove  the  hair  and  the  hard  cuticle ;  then  soaked  in 
an  alkali,  to  remove  the  lime;  next  they  are  soaked  in  a  weak  so- 
lution of  sulphuric  acid,  which  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin  and 
prepares  it  to  receive  the  tannin  more  rapidly.  At  this  stage  of 
the  process  the  skins,  which  are  now  called  pelts,  are  placed  in 
pits,  or  tan-vats,  with  layers  of  ground  tan-bark  between  them, 
and  the  vat  is  filled  with  water.  The  skins  are  allowed  to  soak 
in  this  manner  for  several  months.  Sometimes  the  vats  are  emp- 
tied, and  the  hides  placed  in  the  vat  again  with  fresh  tan-bark. 
The  best  leather  is  prepared  by  allowing  the  hides  to  soak  thus 
for  about  two  years.  Slow  tanning  makes  the  leather  soft. 

By  means  of  the  astringent  property  in  the  liquid  in  which  the 
skins  are  soaked,  they  become  thicker  and  firmer,  and  the  pores  so 
closed  that  water  does  not  easily  affect  the  leather.  Scraping  the 
leather  makes  it  of  uniform  thickness;  rubbing  and  oiling  it  makes 
it  pliable  and  soft. 

How  the  Tannin  is  Obtained.  —  The  astringent  property  in 
which  the  skins  are  soaked — the  tannin — is  obtained  chiefly  from 
oak-bark  and  hemlock-bark.  Hemlock-bark  is  more  commonly 
used  in  this  country,  and  oak-bark  in  Europe.  Hemlock-tanned 
sole-leather  is  of  a  darker  color  than  the  oak-tanned. 

A  cord  of  hemlock-bark  will  tan  about  five  hides ;  and  it  takes 
the  bark  of  two  or  more  trees  to  make  a  cord.  The  acorn  cup 
and  ball  of  the  burr  oak  of  the  United  States,  if  collected  annu- 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS..  163 

ally,  would  supply  taunin  for  all  the  hides  in  this  country,  and 
save  the  great  destruction  of  trees  to  procure  bark  for  this 
purpose. 

What  qualities  make  leather  useful  for  shoes  ? 

"What  kind  of  a  substance  is  leather  ? 

INDIA-RUBBER.       . 

Its  Uses.  —  For  making  overshoes,  boots,  soles  of  boots,  sus- 
penders, tape,  cord,  braces,  bands,  rings,  air  cushions  and  pillows, 
life-preservers,  beds,  springs  for  doors,  bearers  for  springs  on  rail- 
road cars,  bands,  balls,  tubes. 

It  is  dissolved  and  spread  on  cloth  for  water-proof  garments. 

It  is  mixed  with  pitch,  sulphur,  etc.,  and  made  into  a  hard  sub- 
stance, from  which  combs,  knife-handles,  cups,  and  other  articles 
are  made. 

Used  for  erasing  or  rubbing  out  marks  of  the  black-lead  pencil ; 
and  this  use  gives  it  the  name  "  rubber." 

Properties  of  India-rubber.  —  Children  should  be  led  to  dis- 
cover that  India-rubber  is  soft,  flexible,  very  elastic,  tough,  durable, 
difficult  to  cut;  that  it  is  inflammable;  that  its  elasticity  is  in- 
creased by  warmth,  and  diminished  by  cold ;  that  it  is  soluble  in 
naphtha,  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  ether;  that  it  is  insoluble  in 
ivater,  alcohol,  and  acids ;  that  it  is  non-absorbent  of  water,  im- 
pervious to  water — hence  is  water-proof;  that  it  melts  by  heat, 
and  remains  sticky  and  glutinous. 

"What  is  India-rubber  ? — It  is  the  juice  of  trees  which  grow 
in  South  America  and  in  Asia.  In  India  these  trees  sometimes 
grow  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  twenty  feet  in  di- 
ameter. The  best  India-rubber,  and  that  principally  used  in  the 
United  States,  comes  from  South  America.  This  tree  grows 
abundantly  in  Brazil,  along  the  Amazon. 

How  it  is  Obtained. — During  the  rainy  or  cool  season  of  the 
year,  deep  incisions  are  made  in  the  bark  of  the  India-rubber  (or 
caoutchouc)  tree  (Jatropha  elastica),  when  a  thick,  creamy  juice, 
of  a  yellowish  white  color,  flows  out.  This  may  be  collected  in 
bottles,  and,  if  closely  corked,  can  be  kept  in  a  fluid  state  for  a 


164:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

long  time.  It  soon  dries  and  hardens  in  the  sun,  by  which  proc- 
ess it  loses  about  one-half  of  its  quantity.  The  drying  is  hastened 
by  placing  the  juice  over  a  wood  fire,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
color  is  changed  from  a  yellowish  white  to  a  color  nearly  black. 
Clay  moulds  of  various  shapes,  as  of  bottles  and  shoes,  are  made 
by  the  natives,  and  the  juice  is  spread  over  these  in  successive 
layers,  and  dried,  after  which  the  clay  mould  is  broken  up  and 
removed. 

In  conclusion,  require  the  pupils  to  state  which  qualities  render 
India-rubber  most  useful.  To  which  class  of  substances  does  In- 
dia-rubber belong  ? 

GLASS. 

Its  Uses. — It  is  used  for  windows,  pictures,  mirrors,  bottles, 
tumblers,  goblets,  decanters,  vases  and  other  ornaments,  chande- 
liers, lanterns,  spectacles,  telescopes,  watch-glasses. 

What  is  Glass  ? — A  transparent,  hard,  insoluble,  brittle  sub- 
stance, made  by  melting  together  sand  and  soda. 

Kinds  of  Glass. — Crown-glass,  sheet-glass  (or  broad-glass,  or 
cylinder-glass),  plate-glass,  flint-glass,  bottle-glass,  window-glass, 
stained-glass. 

How  Glass  is  Made. — The  materials  of  which  glass  is  com- 
posed— silicates  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  and  lead, 
the  proportions  varying  in  different  kinds  of  glass — are  melted 
together  by  great  heat  in  clay  pots.  The  melted  glass  is  manu- 
factured into  an  immense  variety  of  articles  by  the  use  of  a  hol- 
low tube,  or  blowing-pipe,  and  a  few  other  simple  tools.  The 
tube  is  dipped  into  the  melted  glass,  and  a  quantity  collected  on 
the  end  sufficient  for  the  desired  article.  The  mouth  of  the  work- 
man is  then  applied  to  the  other  end  of  the  tube,  and  the  glass  is 
blown  into  a  hollow  form,  rolled,  pressed,  twisted,  cut,  or  pressed 
in  a  mould,  to  make  it  assume  the  desired  shape.  Melted  glass 
is  exceedingly  ductile,  tenacious,  and  plastic.  After  the  articles 
are  made  in  the  desired  shape,  they  are  placed  in  heated  ovens  to 
cool  slowly. 

Crown-glass. — The  melted  glass  is  taken  from  the  pot  on  the 
blowing -pipe,  is  blown,  whirled,  and  pressed  until  it  becomes 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS.  165 

globular,  with  one  side  flattened.  Then  an  iron  rod,  called  pontil, 
is  dipped  into  the  molten  glass,  and  attached  to  the  centre  of  the 
flattened  part,  after  which  the  blowing-pipe  is  removed,  leaving 
an  opening.  This  globular  glass  is  now  exposed  to  heat,  twirled 
around  with  gradually  increasing  rapidity,  which  causes  the  open- 
ing to  expand,  until  the  glass  finally  flattens  out  into  a  plane  sur- 
face four  or  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  pontil  is  then  removed, 
and  the  disk  is  put  in  the  annealing  arch  to  gradually  cool. 

Some  window-glass  is  made  in  this  manner,  and  subsequently 
cut  up  into  panes  of  the  desired  sizes.  Another  mode  of  making 
window-glass  is  by  a  process  in  which  the -glass  is  first  formed 
into  a  cylinder,  and  then  cut  open  length  wise  and  flattened.  Glass 
made  in  this  way  is  known  as  cylinder-glass,  broad-glass,  sheet- 
glass,  and  German  glass. 

Sheet-glass. — To  make  sheet-glass,  or  cylinder-glass,  the  work- 
man collects  a  mass  of  molten  glass  around  the  end  of  his  blow- 
ing-tube ;  then,  by  blowing  and  rolling,  and  blowing  and  swinging 
it  in  a  vertical  circle,  and  heating  and  repeating  the  blowing  and 
swinging,  the  end  opposite  the  blowing-tube  bursts  open :  this  end 
is  trimmed,  and  the  glass  has  the  form  of  a  cylinder.  Then  the 
blowing-tube  is  removed  from  the  other  end,  leaving  a  hole,  which 
is  expanded  to  the  size  of  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder.  The 
cylinder  is  then  split  open,  flattened,  and  placed  in  the  annealing 
oven. 

Plate-glass. — This  glass  is  made  by  pouring  melted  glass  upon 
a  heated  iron  table  of  the  size  required,  and  with  raised  edges  to 
regulate  the  thickness.  A  copper  roller  is  passed  over  the  melted 
glass  to  make  it  smooth  and  even.  This  plate  is  then  cooled  in 
the  oven.  After  this  it  is  ground  smooth  by  rubbing  two  plates 
together  with  sand  or  finely  powdered  flint  between  them,  and 
finally  polished  with  emery.  This  glass  is  used  for  mirrors  and 
for  large  windows  in  stores. 

Flint-glass. — This  glass  is  made  of  white  sand,  carbonate  of 
potash,  oxide  of  lead,  and  alumina.  It  melts  more  easily  than 
either  crown,  plate,  or  window  glass ;  is  softer,  therefore  is  more 
easily  cut  and  engraved.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  table- 


166  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ware,  bottles,  decorative  articles,  lamps,  globes,  drops,  bells,  chim- 
neys, etc.  It  is  made  into  the  various  articles  for  which  it  is 
used  chiefly  by  means  of  the  blowing-tube,  moulds,  etc. 

Bottle-glass. — This  is  made  from  coarse  or  common  materials, 
and  manufactured  by  blowing  and  moulding. 

In  making  glass  bottles,  where  a  uniform  size  and  shape  is  re- 
quired— and  especially  where  letters  are  to  be  made  in  the  glass 
— the  bottles  are  shaped  by  means  of  a  mould  which  can  be  closed 
around  the  unfinished,  blown  form. 

What  qualities  render  glass  suitable  for  the  purposes  for  which 
it  is  commonly  used? 

To  which  class  of  substances  does  glass  belong  ? 


SUBJECTS  FOR  LESSONS. 

THE  following  list  of  subjects  will  suggest  topics  for 
suitable  lessons  from  which  teachers  may  select  those  that 
are  adapted  to  their  pupils.  The  information  concerning 
many  of  these  subjects  will  be  familiar  to  teachers.  The 
facts  needed  for  lessons  on  many  other  subjects  can  be  ob- 
tained from  books  to  which  teachers  usually  have  access. 
Lessons  upon  several  of  these  subjects  may  be  given  to  a 
class  before  those  of  the  preceding  pages  are  presented. 

In  giving  these  lessons,  the  attention  of  the  pupils 
should  be  directed  to  such  points  as  will  lead  them  to 
observe  those  characteristics  which  chiefly  distinguish  the 
objects  and  render  them  useful.  For  lessons  on  fruits, 
nuts,  grains,  and  other  vegetable  productions,  lead  the  pu- 
pils to  consider  as  many  of  the  following  points  as  may 
be  appropriate  to  the  object  under  consideration  : 

1.  Is  it  a  fruit,  nut,  grain,  gum,  juice,  root  ?  2.  "Where 
does  it  grow  ?  3.  How  is  it  obtained  ?  4.  What  does  it 


SUBJECTS  FOR  LESSONS.  167 

most  nearly  resemble?     5.  What  is  its  principal  quality  ? 
6.  What  is  its  chief  use  ? 

If  the  lesson  be  on  a  mineral  or  metal,  let  attention  be 
directed  to  the  following  points : 

1.  In  what  form  or  condition  is  it  found?  2.  What  is 
done  with  it  to  make  it  useful  ?  3.  What  are  its  princi- 
pal qualities  ?  4.  What  are  its  chief  uses  ? 

If  the  lessons  be  on  manufactured  articles,  let  the  at- 
tention of  the  pupils  be  directed  to  the  following  points : 

1.  Of  what  substances  is  it  made  ? '  2.  Why  were  these 
substances  used  ?  3.  Could  any  other  substance  be  used  ? 
4.  State  processes  of  the  making.  5.  For  what  purpose 
was  it  made  ?  6.  Where  was  it  made  ? 

In  all  of  these  lessons  obtain  facts  from  the  pupils,  as 
far  as  possible.  When  the  object  is  such  that  they  can 
easily  gain  the  desired  information  about  it  at  home  or 
elsewhere,  postpone  further  consideration  of  it  until  an- 
other day,  and  request  the  pupils  to  gain  all  the  facts  pos- 
sible before  the  lesson  is  taken  up  again. 

Dew.  —  When  seen,  how  formed?  [Moisture  of  the  atmos- 
phere condenses  on  cool  objects,  just  as  the  water  collects  from 
the  moisture  in  the  air  on  the  outside  of  a  pitcher  of  ice-water.] 
Frozen  dew,  called  frost. 

Vapor. — Moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  too  thinly  diffused  to  be 
seen ;  or  moisture  rising  and  condensing  into  a  very  thin,  cloud- 
like  condition,  somewhat  as  steam  condenses,  so  as  to  be  visible. 

Clouds. — A  collection  of  visible  vapors  in  the  sky.  When  the 
clouds  are  condensed  by  cooler  currents  of  air,  so  as  to  form  drops, 
these  descend  as  rain. 

Hail  and  snow  are  produced  by  these  drops  freezing,  under  dif- 
ferent conditions. 

Rainbows  are  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  sunlight  in  drops 


168  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  falling  water.     To  see  the  rainbow,  you  must  look  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  the  sun. 

Fog. — Cloud-like  vapor  filling  the  atmosphere  near  the  ground. 
Sometimes  this  vapor  becomes  so  dense  that  a  person  can  see  but 
a  few  feet  from  himself. 

SEEDS  OF  GRAIN-BEARING  PLANTS. 

Interesting  lessons  may  be  given  on  the  seeds  of  plants  used 
for  food.  Samples  of  each  might  be  collected,  and  kept  in  small 
bottles,  with  the  name  of  the  seed  on  each.  In  giving  these  les- 
sons, the  following  facts  will  be  found  useful,  to  be  told  the  pu- 
pils after  they  have  stated  all  they  know  concerning  that  which 
is  the  subject  of  the  lesson : 

Cereals.  —  The  common  grain-bearing  plants — wheat,  rye,  bar- 
ley, Indian-corn,  rice,  oats,  also  broom-corn  and  millet — are  called 
cereals,  from  Ceres,  who  was  the  fabled  goddess  of  corn  and  ag- 
riculture, and  who  is  generally  represented  as  crowned  with  ears 
of  wheat.  All  of  these  grain-bearing  plants  belong  to  the  grass 
family. 

Barley.  —  The  seed  of  a  grass-like  plant.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  grain  used  for  human  food.  It  is  cultivated  in  a 
northern  climate,  and  used  for  food  as  bread,  soups,  and  malt 
drinks. 

Oats. — The  seed  of  a  grass-like  plant.  Each  grain  grows  on  a 
separate  branch  of  the  stalk.  Oats  are  used  in  various  forms  as 
food  for  both  man  and  beast.  Oats  and  barley  will  grow  in  colder 
and  less  fertile  regions  than  other  grain-bearing  grasses.  When 
ground,  it  is  called  oat-meal. 

Rye. — The  seed  of  a  grass-like  plant  which  resembles  wheat  in 
its  growth.  This  grain  may  be  cultivated  where  the  climate  is 
too  cold  for  wheat  to  nourish.  Eye  is  made  into  flour,  and  used 
for  bread,  etc. 

Buckwheat. — The  triangular-shaped  seed  of  a  plant  cultivated 
chiefly  in  a  northern  climate.  The  grain  is  ground  into  flour, 
and  used  for  food  in  the  form  of  griddle-cakes.  The  name  buck- 


SUBJECTS  FOR  LESSONS.  169 

wheat  was  probably  given  to  this  grain  from  the  fact  that  its 
shape  is  like  that  of  the  nut  of  the  beech-tree. 

Wheat. — The  seed  of  a  common  grass-like  plant  cultivated  in 
the  temperate  zones.  It  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  grains  used 
for  food.  It  is  used  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  How  many  of 
these  can  you  mention  ? 

Rice. — The  seed  of  a  grass-like  plant  cultivated  for  food.  It 
is  chiefly  raised  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  in  the  warmest  portions 
of  the  temperate  zones.  Although  rice  is  much  less  nutritious 
than  wheat,  rye,  or  barley,  yet  it  forms  the  food  of  a  greater 
number  of  the  human  race  than  any  other  grain.  What  food 
have  you  eaten  made  of  rice  ? 

Indian-corn,  or  Maize. — The  seed  of  a  large  plant  of  the  grass- 
family.  It  was  originally  found  in  North  America,  but  is  now 
cultivated  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  seeds  grow  around 
a  central  stem  called  a  cob.  It  is  used  for  food  for  man  and  beast 
When  ground,  it  is  called  Indian-meal. 

Broom-corn. — The  top  of  this  well-known  plant  is  extensively 
used  for  making  brooms.  The  seed  forms  a  portion  of  the  food 
of  the  people  in  Arabia  and  India.  In  the  West  Indies  the  seed 
is  called  negro-corn,  as  it  is  much  used  for  food  by  the  negroes. 

Millet. — The  seeds  -of  this  grass-like  plant  are  the  smallest  of 
the  grains  used  for  food.  The  Italians  make  a  coarse,  dark-col- 
ored bread  from  the  flour  of  this  grain.  In  this  country  it  is 
chiefly  raised  for  feeding  poultry. 

Quinoa. — The  seed  of  a  weed-like  plant  which  grows  in  ele- 
vated regions  in  Chili  and  Peru,  South  America,  10,000  or 
12,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  ground  into  flour, 
and  resembles  oatmeal  in  many  of  its  qualities.  The  seeds  are 
small  and  roundish. 

SEEDS  OF  POD-BEARING  PLANTS. 

Beans. — The  seeds  of  well-known  pod-bearing  plants.  They 
are  very  nutritious.  In  what  form  are  beans  used  for  food  ? 


170  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Pease.  —  The  seeds  of  well-known  pod-bearing  vines.  Like 
beans,  they  are  nutritious,  and  wholesome  as  food.  How  are 
pease  prepared  for  food  ? 

Lentils. — The  seeds  of  a  pod-bearing  plant  well-known  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  used  for  food. 

FRUITS,  NUTS,  GRAINS,  ETC. 

The  following  classes  and  names  of  substances  will  suggest 
topics  for  several  lessons  similar  to  preceding  ones : 

Fruits. — Orange,  lemon,  fig,  date,  prnne,  pineapple,  raisin,  bread- 
fruit, banana,  peach,  plum,  apricot,  apple,  pear,  cherry,  currant, 
grape,  berries,  etc. 

Nuts.  —  Almond,  Brazil-nut,  chestnut,  beechnut,  hickory -nut, 
walnut,  filbert,  cocoa-nut,  peanut,  vegetable-ivory,  pecan-nut,  hazel- 
nut,  butternut. 

Grains. — Wheat,  rye,  corn,  oats,  barley,  rice,  buckwheat,  bean, 
pea. 

Roots,  Bulbs,  etc. — Potato,  sweet-potato,  turnip,  beet,  carrot, 
radish,  yam,  horseradish,  onion,  lily,  tuberose,  tulip,  crocus,  ginger, 
sweet-flag,  etc. 

Juices. — Cider,  vinegar,  turpentine,  tar,  .rosin,  liquorice,  gum- 
arabic. 

Drinks. — Tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  cocoa,  broma,  alkathrepta,  milk. 

Metals. — Iron,  steel,  copper,  silver,  gold,  lead,  tin,  pewter,  brass, 
zinc,  nickel,  shot. 

Minerals. — Coal  (hard  and  soft),  charcoal,  coke,  lime,  marble, 
graphite  or  black-lead,  mortar,  chalk,  alum,  borax,  pumice-stone. 

Miscellaneous  Articlea  —  Brick,  glue,  matches,  gunpowder, 
gun-cotton,  paper,  calico,  oil-cloth,  butter,  cheese,  rattan,  vanilla, 
earthen-ware,  mustard,  olive-oil,  honey,  molasses,  arrowroot,  Ice- 
land moss. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  171 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 

"  Nature  is  man's  best  teacher.    She  unfolds 
Her  treasures  to  his  search,  unseals  his  eye, 
Illumes  his  mind,  and  purities  his  heart, — 
An  influence  breathes  from  all  the  sights  and  sounds 
Of  her  existence;  she  is  Wisdom's  self." 

ALFRED  B.  STREET. 

LIVING,  moving  forms  possess  the  greatest  attractions 
for  children.  The  life  and  motions  exhibited  in  the  ani- 
mal world,  corresponding  to  the  activity  of  childhood, 
place  animals  among  the  earliest  and  most  interesting  ob- 
jects that  awaken  the  curiosity  of  the  young ;  hence  they 
furnish  materials  admirably  adapted  to  cultivating  their 
perceptive  faculties,  and  forming  habits  of  attentive  ob- 
servation. 

"  Those  who  have  watched  the  faint  dawnings  of  intellect  and 
the  gradual  brightening  that  heralds  the  day  will  have  observed 
that  children  very  early  become  acquainted  with  certain  objects, 
and  indicate,  when  only  eight  or  ten  months  old,  their  instantane- 
ous detection  of  changes  in  those  things  to  which  they  are  accus- 
tomed. Such  observers  will  testify  that,  next  to  the  familiar  faces 
of  the  members  of  their  own  family,  there  are  no  objects  which 
attract  their  attention  sooner  or  more  powerfully  than  our  do- 
mestic quadrupeds.  The  dog,  the  cat,  the  horse,  the  cow,  and  the 
sheep  are  to  them  wonders.  Not  only  do  they  become  acquainted 
with  the  figure,  color,  and  movements  of  these  animals,  but  with 
their  various  cries ;  so  that  long  before  the  infant  lips  are  capable 
of  articulating  the  name  of  the  dog  or  of  the  cow,  the  bark  of  the 
one  and  the  lowing  of  the  other  will  be  attempted,  and  will  be  so 
associated  with  the  animal  as  to  serve  instead  of  a  name.  Thus 


172  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  imitative  or  natural  language  of  the  child  precedes  the  arti- 
ficial. And  ideas  relating  to  a  class  of  natural  history  objects  are 
among  the  earliest  mental  acquirements  of  children. 

"As  it  is  a  beneficent  law  of  our  nature  that  the  legitimate  ex- 
ercise of  every  organ  and  faculty  is  in  itself  a  source  of  pleasure, 
we  may  feel  assured  that  the  use  of  the  observant  powers  is  a 
source  of  gratification  to  the  child,  and  a  stimulus  which  leads  to 
a  desire  to  see  more.  The  object — whether  animal  or  plant — that 
the  child  thus  sees  may  be  described  in  a  hundred  books,  and 
have  been  familiar  for  ages  to  men  of  science,  yet  these  facts  do 
not  detract  from  the  delight  of  the  child.  It  is  new  to  him ;  and 
his  pleasure  is  akin  to  that  of  the  naturalist,  who  detects  an  un- 
recorded species,  and  gives  it  a  name,  and  places  it  for  the  first 
time  on  the  rolls  of  science."* 

Children  always  find  delight  in  watching  the  move- 
ments and  noticing  the  intelligence  of  animals,  and  in  lis- 
tening to  stories  about  them.  No  department  of  nature 
is  more  attractive  to  them,  or  supplies  so  great  an  abun- 
dance of  suitable  objects  for  developing  their  habits  of 
gaining  knowledge  from  the  world  around  them ;  yet 
when  left  entirely  to  themselves  in  this  matter  of  obser- 
vation, they  neglect  to  see  many  of  the  things  that  are 
most  important  to  correct  knowledge ;  and  they  also  fail 
to  associate  in  proper  groups  the  facts  which  they  thus 
learn.  The  guiding  influence  of  the  competent  instructor 
becomes,  therefore,  especially  beneficial  to  the  young  ob- 
server, even  with  such  an  abundance  of  attractive  mate- 
rials, by  leading  him  to  notice  those  significant  features 
and  characteristics  that  belong  to  the  different  kinds  of 
animals. 

Young  children  need  to  be  guided  to  that  which  is  best 
for  them  to  see  much  of,  as  well  as  to  what  is  best  for 
them  to  eat  much  of.  With  all  their  fondness  for  watch- 
ing the  movements  of  animals,  they  need  to  be  led  to  see 

*  Robert  Patterson,  in  Natural  History  in  Home  Education. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  173 

for  a  special  purpose,  and  to  see  things  that  relate  to  that 
purpose.  But  they  may  also  be  allowed  to  see  as  much 
more  as  they  please,  if  their  attention  be  properly  given 
to  those  objects  which  are  under  investigation. 

One  of  the  great  mistakes  in  the  plans  of  education  lies 
in  the  neglect  to  provide  for  a  proper  use  of  the  valuable 
materials  which  nature  furnishes  so  abundantly  in  the  an- 
imal world  as  a  means  for  the  early  development  of  the 
powers  of  gaining  knowledge.  The  domestic  animals, 
and  such  others,  including  insects,  as  come  within  the 
range  of  frequent  observation,  engage  the  attention  of 
children  long  before  they  are  old  enough  to  commence 
their  first  lessons  in  books.  Nature  does  not  weary  the 
young  learner,  as  books  do.  These  facts  should  be  remem- 
bered in  the  arrangement  of  courses  of  primary  instruc- 
tion. That  which  is  familiar  and  interesting  to  children 
should  be  among  the  subjects  of  the  earliest  lessons.  Nat- 
ure should  be  studied  first ;  then  books  and  nature  togeth- 
er, each  helping  the  student  to  understand  the  other. 

Give  children  correct  ideas  of  the  leading  groups  of 
animals,  teach  them  to  distinguish  their  characteristics  by 
personal  observation,  and  to  arrange  them  in  classes  by 
such  means,  and  not  only  will  the  real  interest  of  children 
in  this  subject  be  secured,  but  the  usefulness  of  text-books 
will  be  largely  increased.  Children  thus  taught  become 
real  and  practical  students.  By  becoming  accustomed  to 
observe  carefully,  to  arrange  in  classes  by  common  resem- 
blances, habits  of  order  are  formed  which  prove  valuable 
at  a  later  period  in  life,  in  whatever  situation  the  person 
so  trained  may  be  placed — whether  in  the  office  of  the 
lawyer,  in  the  counting-room  of  the  merchant,  in  the  lab- 
oratory of  the  chemist,  in  the  workshop  of  the  mechanic, 
or  in  the  fields  of  the  farmer. 

Among  the  attractive  materials  of  the  animal  world  ap- 
propriate for  the  early  exercises  of  the  perceptive  powers 


174  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

are  those  animals  with  whose  appearance  children  are  to 
some  extent  familiar — as  the  cat,  dog,  cow,  horse,  hen, 
goose,  duck,  sheep,  pig,  mouse ;  and  birds  of  all  kinds. 
The  toad  and  the  snail  supply  interesting  materials  for 
these  lessons  in  nature,  because  children  do  not  usually 
expect  to  find  anything  instructive  in  things  so  common 
and  unattractive. 

The  peculiar  structure  and  uses  of  the  cat's  eye,  her 
cushion -like  feet,  and  retractile  nails;  instances  of  the 
fidelity  and  sagacity  of  the  dog ;  the  docility  of  the  horse ; 
the  gentleness  of  the  cow ;  the  playfulness  of  the  lamb 
and  the  kitten ;  the  different  movements  of  birds — as  walk- 
ing, hopping,  swimming,  flying,  their  nest -building  and 
migratory  habits ;  the  form,  movement,  and  habits  of  fish- 
es, reptiles,  and  insects,  with  the  wonderful  adaptation  of 
structure  to  their  several  modes  of  life.  Also  the  differ- 
ent voices  of  animals :  as  the  bark,  the  whine,  and  growl 
of  the  dog ;  the  mew  and  purr  of  the  cat ;  the  neigh  and 
whinny  of  the  horse ;  the  bleats  of  the  sheep,  goat,  lamb, 
and  kid ;  the  cluck  and  cackle  of  the  hen ;  the  gabble  and 
hiss  of  the  goose ;  the  quack  of  the  duck ;  the  caw  of  the 
crow ;  the  whistle  of  the  quail ;  the  songs  of  the  thrush, 
robin,  bluebird,  and  canary,  all  furnish  materials  and  sub- 
jects adapted  to  interest  and  instruct  children. 

Attention  may  be  also  directed  to  those  animals  which 
serve  us  by  their  strength,  swiftness,  and  sagacity ;  and  to 
those  that  supply  so  many  of  our  wants  by  their  milk, 
flesh,  honey,  wool,  hair,  fur,  skins,  horns,  bones,  tusks, 
feathers,  etc. 

The  lessons  during  the  early  stages  of  instruction  should 
be  short.  Give  an  idea  of  some  one  thing,  or  of  the  ac- 
tion of  some  one  animal ;  then  stop,  let  the  young  learn- 
ers go  away  and  think  and  talk  about  it,  and  look  to  see 
if  the  thing  be  really  so.  Then  they  will  return  to  the 
next  lesson  desirous  of  knowing  more. 


NATUKAL  HISTORY.  175 

The  natural  fondness  of  children  for  animals  renders 
these  objects  especially  appropriate  for  lessons  to  develop 
their  humane  feelings,  sympathy,  kindness,  and  benevo- 
lence. 

Plants,  as  well  as  animals,  supply  useful  materials  for 
the  child's  development  by  their  beautiful  flowers  of  many 
shapes  and  colors;  their  variety  of  delicious  fruits;  their 
fragrance  and  flavor ;  the  many  forms  of  their  leaves  and 
stems;  by  the  wonders  of  their  growth,  and  their  uses  for 
food,  medicine,  clothing,  building,  furniture,  fuel,  etc.  Al- 
though these  lack  the  attractive  feature  of  motion  which 
renders  the  animal  world  so  full  of  interest  to  the  young, 
very  interesting  and  profitable  lessons  may  be  given  on 
these  subjects,  which  will  gladden  the  footsteps  of  many 
weary  pilgrims  along  the  road  to  the  temple  of  knowl- 
edge, and  enrich  them  with  lasting  treasures. 

Minerals  form  an  important  part  of  the  common  ob- 
jects and  implements  which  the  child  sees  and  handles 
daily.  Although  not  endowed  with  the  power  of  motion 
like  animals,  or  of  growth  like  plants,  yet  they  are  also 
calculated  to  awaken  the  curiosity  of  children,  and  there- 
by furnish  appropriate  means  for  their  mental  develop- 
ment. 

The  transparency  of  glass ;  the  elasticity  of  steel  springs ; 
the  flexibility  of  copper  wire ;  the  fusibility  of  lead ;  the 
attraction  of  the  magnet ;  the  usefulness  of  iron,  and  its 
softening  by  heat ;  the  astringency  of  alum ;  and  the  ap- 
pearances, qualities,  and  uses  of  other  metals,  minerals, 
rocks,  and  soils,  add  to  the  great  variety  of  materials 
which  nature  abundantly  supplies  for  the  development 
and  instruction  of  the  child. 

These  three  grand  divisions  of  nature — animals,  vege- 
tables^ and  minerals — comprise  the  materials  which  God 


176  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

employs  in  exercising  the  senses,  stimulating  the  percep- 
tive powers,  awakening  intelligence,  and  cultivating  the 
human  mind  throughout  its  stages  of  intellectual  devel- 
opment. And  these  things  are  especially  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  elementary  education,  since  the  aim  at  this 
time  is  not  so  much  the  giving  of  a  certain  amount  of 
knowledge  as  it  is  the  awakening  of  the  faculties,  and 
training  the  pupil  to  use  his  own  mind. 

The  introductory  lessons  on  natural  history  should  be 
graded,  and  presented  in  successive  steps,  corresponding 
to  the  different  stages  of  the  child's  development.  The 
age  and  capacity  of  the  child  should  determine  as  to  the 
extent  and  minuteness  of  the  observations  required,  and 
the  amount  of  information  to  be  gained. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  177 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS. 
FIRST  STAGE. 

[Intended  for  children  at  home,  and  during  the  first  year  in  school.] 


children  have  become  sufficiently  familiar  with 
their  own  bodies  to  be  able  to  point  out  and  name  the 
principal  parts,  and  to  tell  the  use  of  each  organ  of  sense, 
they  will  be  ready  for  the  lessons  on  animals,  and  pre- 
pared to  observe  the  different  parts  of  animals,  to  compare 
them  with  parts  of  their  own  bodies,  and  notice  resem- 
blances and  differences  in  the  structure  and  uses  of  these 
parts. 

The  first  lessons  should  not  be  formal  in  character,  but 
rather  consist  of  familiar  conversations,  with  abundant  op- 
portunities for  personal  observation  by  the  child.  As  far 
as  practicable,  let  the  pupil  see  the  object  first,  and  then 
hear  about  it.  The  spontaneous  questions  by  the  child 
that  follow  his  seeing  —  what  is  it?  what  is  it  for?  why 
does  it  do  so  ?  will  it  hurt  me  ?  —  furnish  abundant  oppor- 
tunities for  instruction,  and  guide  the  parent  or  teacher  as 
to  the  kind  of  information  that  is  most  appropriate  for  the 
young  learner  during  his  first  lessons. 

"When  the  child  enters  school  he  has  already  acquired 
some  knowledge  concerning  domestic  animals,  and  other 
familiar  ones,  through  home  experiences.  The  teacher's 
first  aim  must  be  to  ascertain  the  character  and  extent  of 
this  information,  and  then  to  follow  with  appropriate  les- 
sons connected  with  and  based  upon  this  knowledge.  The 
following  series  of  exercises  will  suggest  some  of  the  meth- 
ods which  teachers  may  pursue  during  successive  steps  in 
these  early  lessons. 

8* 


178  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

First  Series  of  Exercises.— To  ascertain  what  animals 
the  children  are  most  familiar  with,  request  them  to  tell  what  an- 
imals they  have  seen.  When  several  names  have  been  given,  se- 
lect one  animal  named,  and  ask  a  child,  Where  did  you  see  it  ? 
Then  ask  another  where  he  saw  it ;  repeating  the  question  to  sev- 
eral members  of  the  class. 

What  can  it  do?  is  another  question  that  may  invite  answers 
from  several  pupils.  This  may  be  followed  by  other  questions; 
as,  How  does  it  move?  What  does  it  eat?  Where  does  it  live? 
What  is  it  good  for  ?  The  same  or  similar  questions  may  be 
asked  about  different  familiar  animals.  The  pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged to  make  new  observations  of  each  animal  that  forms  a 
subject  of  this  exercise,  and  to  talk  about  them  at  a  subsequent 
lesson. 

To  farther  stimulate  them  in  observation,  tell  the  children  some 
simple  story  about  the  animal ;  or,  if  the  exercise  be  about  a  cat, 
ask  the  children  to  look  at  the  opening  in  the  cat's  eyes  when  the 
sun  shines,  and  to  look  at  it  at  night,  or  when  there  is  not  much 
light  in  the  room,  and  to  tell  their  teacher  the  next  day  what  they 
saw.  They  may  be  requested  also  to  look  at  the  feet  of  a  duck 
or  goose,  and  the  feet  of  a  hen,  and  afterward  tell  how  they  dif^ 
fer.  Lead  them  to  tell  what  the  cat  does  when  it  is  happy;  what 
it  does  when  it  is  mad.  Thus  in  various  ways  the  teacher  may 
stimulate  and  lead  the  children  to  find  out  many  interesting  and 
useful  facts  about  animals. 

Do  not  tell  the  pupils  that  which  they  can  discover.  The 
teacher  may  choose  the  object,  lead  the  pupils  to  it,  then  leave 
them  to  see  it,  handle  it,  and  learn  from  it  by  the  exercise  of 
their  own  senses. 

These  exercises  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  lessons  in  reading 
and  spelling,  by  teaching  the  pupils  the  names  of  the  animals 
talked  about;  and  to  read  some  of  the  simple  statements  as  to 
what  they  can  do,  how  move,  what  they  eat,  etc. 

Second  Series  of  Exercises. — Place  before  the  pupils 
pictures  of  several  of  the  animals  about  which  conversations  have 
already  been  held  ;  as  cat,  dog,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  horse,  etc.  Let 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  179 

the  pupils  name  these  animals  as  the  teacher  points  at  the  pict- 
ures. Let  the  pupils,  singly,  point  out  and  name  these  animals. 
Let  them  point  out  and  name  the  principal  parts  of  each ;  as, 
head,  neck,  body,  legs,  feet,  tail,  back,  ears,  eyes,  nose,  mouth,  etc. 

Select  a  single  picture — as  that  of  a  cat.  Let  the  pupils  point 
out  and  name  the  principal  parts  ;  as,  head,  neck,  body,  tail,  legs, 
feet,  claws,  ears,  eyes,  teeth,  feelers,  tongue. 

Select  the  picture  of  a  familiar  bird  —  as  hen,  duck,  turkey, 
robin — and  let  the  pupils  point  out  and  name  the  principal  parts ; 
as  head,  neck,  body,  tail,  legs,  wings,  beak,  eyes,  feet,  etc.  Pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way  with  pictures  of  the  dog,  the  horse,  the 
cow,  sheep,  goat,  pig,  etc. 

Third  Series  of  Exercises.  —  Place  the  pictures  of  fa- 
miliar animals — as  cow,  horse,  and  sheep — before  the  pupils,  and 
request  them  to  tell  what  each  is  good  for.  One  pupil  might 
say  the  cow  gives  us  milk ;  another,  the  sheep  gives  us  wool ; 
another,  the  horse  can  draw  us  in  a  wagon,  etc. 

Then  a  single  picture  may  be  selected,  and  the  pupils  requested 
to  tell  all  they  can  about  that.  If  it  be  the  picture  of  a  cow,  the 
pupils  might  say, "  We  get  milk  from  the  cow ;  we  make  butter 
from  the  milk;  we  can  make  cheese  from  the  milk.  Leather 
for  shoes  and  boots  is  made  from  the  skin  of  a  cow.  The  flesh 
of  the  cow  is  called  beef.  We  eat  beef."  Do  not  try  to  make 
the  pupils  tell  things  which  they  cannot  learn  by  observation,  nor 
such  as  they  would  not  be  likely  to  have  learned  by  talking  about 
the  subject. 

Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with  other  familiar  animals,  and 
thus  lead  the  pupils  to  consider  their  uses — i.  e.,  to  answer  one 
of  their  own  questions — What  is  it  for  ?  In  this  way  they  may 
become  able  to  mention,  somewhat  as  follows,  many 

USES  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  Horse  is  useful  for  riding,  for  drawing  loads,  carts,  wagons, 
sleighs,  carriages,  cars,  ploughing,  etc. 

The  Sheep  is  useful  in  supplying  wool  for  clothing,  flesh  for  food, 
and  skin  for  soft  leather. 

The  Goat  is  useful  in  supplying  milk  for  food,  and  skin  for  leather. 


180  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The  Dog  is  useful  to  guard  the  house  and  barn,  to  hunt,  to  kill 
rats,  etc. 

Hens  and  Turkeys  supply  eggs  and  flesh  for  food. 

Ducks  and  Geese  supply  eggs  and  flesh  for  food,  and  feathers 
for  pillows,  beds,  etc. 

Fourth  Series  of  Exercises.— Lead  the  pupils  to  talk 
about  the  movements  of  animals. 

First — they  may  tell  what  they  have  noticed  concerning  the 
movements  of  the  animals  named  for  the  lesson. 

Second — then  lead  them  to  observe  the  different  movements  of 
animals  more  carefully. 

In  conducting  this  exercise,  the  teacher  should  not  tell  the  pupils 
what  the  movements  are,  but  request  them  to  find  out,  if  they  do 
not  already  know,  and  to  tell  about  them  during  the  next  day's 
lesson,  which  should  include  a  review  of  the  lesson  on  the  pre- 
vious day. 

As  suggestions  to  the  teacher  relative  to  the  facts  which  the 
pupils  might  notice  and  mention  concerning  these  movements, 
the  following  list  of  appropriate  animals,  with  their  movements, 
is  given : 

The  Cat  can  walk,  run,  jump,  and  climb. 

The  Dog  can  walk,  trot,  run,  leap,  and  jump. 

The  Horse  can  walk,  trot,  run,  canter  or  gallop,  and  pace. 

The  Hen  can  walk,  run,  and  fly. 

The  Goose  can  walk,  run,  fly,  and  swim. 

The  Sparrow  can  hop  and  fly. 

The  Robin  can  run,  walk,  and  fly. 

The  Turkey  can  walk,  run,  and  fly. 

The  Fish  can  swim. 

The  Bee  can  creep  and  fly. 

The  Toad  can  walk  and  leap. 

The  Mouse  can  walk,  run,  aud  climb. 

The  Squirrel  can  walk,  run,  climb,  and  jump. 

The  Monkey  can  walk,  jump,  climb,  and  swing. 

Use  these  exercises  as  reading-lessons  from  the  blackboard; 
also  as  lessons  in  spelling  and  writing  on  slates. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  181 


LESSONS   ON  ANIMALS. 
SECOND  STAGE. 

[.Intended  for  children  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age.] 

the  children  have  acquired  a  good  variety  of 
facts  by  their  own  observation  of  familiar  animals,  and 
the  ability  to  give  sufficient  attention  to  a  single  object 
to  consider  more  than  one  of  its  characteristics  at  the  same 
lesson,  they  will  be  prepared  for  a  second  series  of  lessons, 
during  which  they  may  be  led  to  observe  more  minutely 
the  peculiarities  of  each  object. 

During  this  second  stage  lessons  may  be  given  that  will 
afford  exercise  for  the  child's  imagination,  and  thus  give 
pleasure  through  a  faculty  that  is  very  active  in  early 
life.  In  giving  this  series  of  lessons,  the  teacher  should 
use  a  few  interesting  facts  about  each  animal  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  lead  the  pupils  to  observe  and  learn  other 
facts  about  it. 

Some  lessons  may  be  commenced  by  first  requiring  the 
pupils  to  tell  all  they  know  about  the  animal ;  then  the 
teacher  may  ask  a  few  questions  about  special  habits  of 
the  animal  that  will^  stimulate  the  pupils  to  try  to  find 
answers  by  their  own  observations ;  as,  What  does  it  do  ? 
How  does  it  get  its  food  ?  What  does  it  eat  ?  How  does 
it  move  ?  Would  it  like  to  have  you  pat  it  ?  etc. 

Sometimes  the  lesson  may  be  commenced  by  comparing 
the  habits  of  animals  with  some  appropriate  occupation ; 
adding  a  few  interesting  facts  about  them,  and  telling  the 
children  how  t*hey  may  see  the  same  things,  and  many 
others  equally  interesting. 

Throughout  all  the  lessons  in  this  stage  the  constant  aim 


182  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  the  teacher  should  ~be  to  cause  the  pupils  to  see  carefully, 
observe  patiently,  and  learn  for  themselves. 

This  series  may  include  lessons  on  a  few  animals  that 
the  children  see  only  in  museums,  menageries,  zoological 
gardens,  or  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  by  means 
of  pictures. 

Some  simple  classification  of  animals  in  groups,  by  their 
similar  habits,  modes  of  life,  etc.,  may  be  made  in  this 
stage,  to  give  children  an  idea  of  kinds  or  classes  of  ani- 
mals. 

The  following  lessons  are  not  intended  to  be  copied  by 
the  teacher,  and  taught  to  the  children ;  but  they  are  de- 
signed to  furnish  sufficient  information  for  bringing  the 
lessons  before  the  class,  and  to  suggest  methods  for  con- 
ducting them.  Each  teacher  should  endeavor  to  make 
the  lessons  her  own,  and  to  adapt  them  to  the  pupils  in 
her  class.  Concerning  some  of  the  animals  only  the 
most  important  facts  and  characteristics  are  given,  and 
the  teacher  is  expected  to  arrange  these  in  an  appropriate 
form  for  a  lesson,  with  such  additional  information  as  she 
can  supply. 

After  a  lesson  has  been  given  and  reviewed,  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  write  on  their  slates,  or  on  paper, 
the  most  important  facts  contained  in  the  lesson.  By 
proper  management  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  pu- 
pils may  be  led  to  the  writing  of  compositions  in  a  way 
that  will  be  interesting  to  them. 

THE  CAT. 

The  teacher  may  introduce  the  lesson  in  a  way  that  will  gain 
the  attention  of  the  pupils;  and  this  can  be  secured  by  furnishing 
them  a  little  exercise  for  their  imagination,  somewhat  as  follows : 

Children,  I  am  going  to  talk  with  you  about  a  small  animal 
which  all  of  you  have  seen.  It  is  fond  of  staying  in  the  kitchen, 
and  of  lying  in  a  warm  place.  It  likes  to  be  noticed,  and  even 


LESSONS  OX  ANIMALS.  183 

caressed  by  those  "who  are  kind  to  it.     I  think  some  of  you  have 
taken  this  animal  in  your  arms,  and  felt  of  its  soft  fur. 

Having  thus  prepared  the  class  for  the  lesson,  the  teacher  may 
proceed  somewhat  as  follows : 

Teacher.  All  who  think  they  can  tell  the  name  of  this  animal  may 
raise  a  hand  ?  What  is  its  name  ? 

Children.  A  cat. 

T.  Very  good.  Here  is  the  picture  of  a  cat.  "What  do  you  think 
it  is  doing  ?  What  do  you  see  on  each  side  of  its  mouth  ? 

C.  Whiskers. 

T.  That  which  you  call  the  cat's  whiskers  are  its  feelers.  When 
the  cat  puts  its  head  in  a  hole  it  can  tell  by  these  feelers  whether 
the  hole  is  large  enough  to  allow  its  body  to  go  through. 

The  cat  does  not  like  to  lie  down  in  a  dirty  place.  It  is  more 
careful  about  keeping  out  of  the  dirt  than  some  children  are  when 
they  are  at  play.  The  cat  does  not  like  to  have  her  face  dirty.  How 
does  she  keep  her  face  clean  ? 

C.  She  washes  it  with  her  paws.  She  licks  her  paws,  makes  them 
clean,  then  rubs  them  on  her  face,  then  licks  them  again. 

T.  Puss  carries  a  brush,  and  smooths  her  fur  with  it.  I  think 
some  of  you  have  seen  her  use  it.  Do  you  know  what  this  brush  is  ? 

C.  I  think  it  is  her  tongue,  for  I  have  seen  her  lick  her  fur ;  and 
her  tongue  is  rough,  something  like  a  brush. 

T.  You  are  right ;  the  top  of  her  tongue  is  covered  with  horny 
points;  which  slant  backward  toward  her  throat.  With  this  rough 
tongue  she  can  make  her  hair  smooth. 

Did  you  know  that  cats  can  see  in  the  dark  ?  They  have  curtains 
in  their  eyes  of  a  yellowish-green  color.  When  the  sun  shines  very 
brightly  they  draw  these  curtains  together,  so  as  to  leave  only  a  nar- 
row opening  between  them,  and  let  in  a  little  light.  When  too  much 
light  goes  into  the  eye  it  has  a  blinding  effect,  and  prevents  the  cat 
from  seeing  well.  At  night  this  curtain  is  pulled  back  to  make  a 
wide  opening,  to  let  in  enough  light  to  enable  the  cat  to  see.  By 
this  means  the  cat  can  see  to  hunt  its  prey  at  night. 

Did  you  ever  look  in  a  cat's  eyes  when  the 
sun  shines  brightly  on  her,  and  notice  how  the 
curtains  are  drawn  nearly  together,  leaving 
only  a  narrow  opening?  I  will  try  to  make 
a  picture  on  the  blackboard  to  show  how  the 
cat's  eye  looks  when  these  curtains  are  drawn 

together.  EYE  IN  SUNLIGHT. 


EYE  AT  NIGIIT. 


184  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Did  you  ever  look  at  a  cat's  eye  at  night, 
when  the  curtains  were  pulled  so  far  back  that 
the  opening  in  the  pupil  of  the  eye  was  like  a 
large  round  spot,  or  circle  ?  The  opening  be- 
tween the  curtains  of  the  cat's  eye  is  the  pupil. 
The  cat  sees  through  the  pupils  of  its  eyes  as 
you  see  through  the  small  circular  pupils  in 
your  eyes.  Have  you  a  cat  ?  What  is  the  color  of  your  cat  ? 

You  must  look  at  your  cat's  eyes  when  you  go  home,  and  see  if 
you  can  find  the  curtains ;  and  then  watch,  as  you  take  the  cat  near 
a  bright  light, to  see  them  draw  together;  then  take  the  cat  where 
there  is  but  a  little  light,  and  watch  the  curtains  as  they  move  back 
to  let  in  more  light. 

If  you  let  the  cat  lick  your  hand,  you  can  feel  the  brush  with  which 
she  smooths  her  fur. 

Did  you  ever  see  the  cat's  pin-cushions  ?  She  carries  them  on  her 
feet,  and  keeps  in  them  several  curved  pins,  with  sharp  points.  See 
if  you  can  count  the  pins  in  each  cushion  ?  What  does  she  do  with 
them  ? 

The  cat  walks  on  her  cushions.  They  are  so  soft  that  she  can 
walk  without  making  a  noise ;  and  the  mice  do  not  hear  her  as 
she  creeps  up  near  their  holes  to  watcli  for  them  to  come  out,  where 
she  can  reach  them  with  her  paws. 

What  does  the  cat  do  when  she  is  happy? 

Children.  She  purrs. 

Teacher.  How  does  the  cat  show  that  she  is  angry? 

C.  She  wags  her  tail,  and  makes  a  noise. 

T.  How  does  the  cat  tell  you  that  she  is  hungry  ? 

C.  She  mews. 

T.  How  does  she  tell  you  that  she  wants  you  to  open  the  door  for 
her  to  come  in  or  to  go  out  ? 

How  many  of  you  will  look  at  a  cat  at  home,  and  try  to  find  all 
the  things  that  we  have  talked  about — the  feelers,  the  brush,  the  cush- 
ions, the  crooked  pins  f 

Some  day  we  will  talk  more  about  the  cat,  and  tell  you  something 
about  her  great  uncles  and  cousins  that  live  far  away. 

When  giving  the  lessons  in  this  stage,  two  or  three  exercises 
should  be  had  about  each  animal,  so  as  to  give  the  pupils  time 
for  observing  what  may  be  found  that  has  been  talked  about,  and 
the  teacher  an  opportunity  of  correcting  mistakes  which  they  may 
have  made.  One  or  two  days  may  elapse  between  the  exercises. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  185 

It  is  important  that  the  pupils  be  encouraged  to  tell  what  they 
observe,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  points  of  the  lesson,  and  allowed 
opportunity  to  report  their  observations.  When  able  to  write,  oc- 
casionally change  the  manner  by  which  the  pupils  report  what  they 
have  seen,  and  let  them  write  what  they  would  say  instead  of  tell- 
ing it. 

THE  DOG. 

The  dog  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  lesson,  and  treated  some- 
what like  the  cat.  The  attention  of  the  children  may  be  directed 
to  the  characteristics  of  the  dog  somewhat  as  follows : 

There  is  an  animal,  which  usually  lives  about  the  house,  that  chil- 
dren sometimes  use  for  a  horse  to  ride ;  sometimes  they  harness  him 
to  their  little  wragon,  and  let  him  draw  it  around  the  yard.  Some 
of  these  animals  are  so  kind  to  children,  and  so  good-natured,  that 
they  will  allow  little  boys  to  pull  their  tails  and  ears,  or  sit  on  them 
and  roll  them  over.  I  think  you  have  seen  one  of  these  animals  that 
was  happy  to  go  with  you  when  you  took  a  walk  in  the  fields  or  in 
the  woods.  He  is  always  happy  with  children  who  are  kind  to  him 
and  do  not  tease  him.  What  is  the  name  of  this  animal  ? 

The  dog  is  a  faithful  companion  of  man.  He  protects  his  person 
from  strangers ;  guards  his  house  and  other  property  at  night ;  assists 
his  master  in  hunting  wild  game ;  helps  him  to  care  for  and  drive 
his  cattle  and  sheep ;  sometimes  he  brings  his  master's  daily  paper 
to  him ;  sometimes  he  takes  a  basket  to  market  for  meat  or  groceries ; 
sometimes  he  saves  the  life  of  a  child  that  falls  into  deep  water  from 
drowning ;  and  in  a  great  many  ways  he  serves  those  who  are  kind 
to  him.  His  affectionate  disposition  strongly  attaches  him  to  his  mas- 
ter, and  he  will  follow  him  wherever  he  is  allowed  to  go.  He  is  the 
companion  and  friend  of  man  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  A  dog  has 
a  very  keen  scent.  He  can  track  his  master  along  a  crowded  street, 
and  can  follow  an  animal  for  many  miles  by  the  scent  along  its  track 
without  getting  within  sight  of  it.  This  fact  makes  the  dog  valuable 
for  hunting  deer,  foxes,  and  other  animals.  His  sight  and  hearing  are 
also  very  keen. 

What  kind  of  dogs  have  you  seen  ?  You  may  tell  me  their  names. 
Look  at  the  dogs  in  this  picture,*  and  see  how  many  kinds  you  can 
point  out. 

Now  direct  the  pupils'  attention  to  the  long  head  of  this  animal ; 

*  Show  Prang's  picture  of  dogs,  or  some  other  one  that  represents  several 
kinds  of  dogs. 


186  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

its  long  ears ;  its  smooth  tongue ;  strong,  pointed  teeth ;  its  blunt 
nails ;  to  its  habit  of  extending  the  tongue  when  heated  or  tired  by 
running ;  to  the  tricks  which  he  may  be  taught  to  perform ;  and  to 
his  general  intelligence.  Encourage  the  children  to  tell  what  their 
dogs  can  do. 

Teacher.  What  does  the  dog  do  to  show  that  he  is  happy  ?  How 
does  he  tell  you  that  he  is  hungry  ?  How  does  the  dog  show  you 
that  he  is  angry  ? 

THE  GOAT. 

The  goat  being  an  animal  with  which  children  generally  are 
familiar,  the  teacher  can  obtain  many  facts  concerning  it  from 
them,  and  then  direct  their  attention  to  its  structure,  habits, 
uses,  etc. 

They  may  be  led  to  compare  the  size  of  its  body  and  the  shape 
of  its  head  with  those  of  the  sheep,  and  to  notice  that  its  slender 
legs,  and  its  feet  with  parted  hoofs,  are  like  those  of  the  sheep ; 
but  that  it  differs  from  the  sheep  in  being  covered  with  hair,  and 
in  having  a  tuft  of  hair,  or  beard,  under  its  chin. 

It  eats  grass,  hay,  grain,  and  vegetables  like  the  sheep,  but  it 
will  eat  also  many  other  things,  as  twigs,  leaves,  bark,  old  paper, 
and  sometimes  rags. 

Goats  like  to  live  on  hills  and  among  rocks.  They  are  sure- 
footed, and  can  climb  the  sides  of  steep,  rocky  hills  where  a  sheep 
could  not  go.  Wild  goats  live  in  herds  on  the  mountains  of  Eu- 
rope and  Asia. 

This  animal  belongs  to  the  cud-chewing  family.  It  is  often 
kept  about  horse-stables,  and  frequently  a  horse  and  a  goat  be- 
come great  friends  to  each  other.  It  is  said  that  goats  are  the 
only  animals  that  will  boldly  face  a  fire. 

The  Cashmere  goat  of  Asia  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  gray  wool, 
which  grows  under  its  long,  silky  hair.  Only  a  small  quantity  of 
wool — about  three  ounces — is  obtained  from  a  single  goat.  Ex- 
pensive Cashmere  shawls  are  made  of  this  wool. 

The  milk  of  the  goat  is  used  for  food ;  its  skin  for  morocco 
leather.  The  skin  of  the  young  kid  is  used  for  kid  gloves.  Boys 
sometimes  harness  goats  to  their  little  wagons,  and  thus  make  the 
goat  draw  them  about. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  187 


THE  BAT. 

In  a  warm  summer  evening,  after  the  birds  and  fowls  have  all 
gone  to  roost,  we  sometimes  see  a  little  creature  flying  about  so 
swiftly  that  we  can  hardly  follow  it  with  our  eyes.  It  seldom 
makes  a  noise ;  its  wings  do  not  rustle  like  those  of  birds ;  it  has 
no  feathers.  Did  you  ever  see  one  of  these  little  animals  ?  What  is 
its  name  ?  Why  do  you  suppose  it  flies  about  in  this  manner  ? 

You  have  seen  swallows  fly  about  in  the  daytime,  sometimes  near 
the  ground,  sometimes  close  to  the  surface  of  a  pond  of  water,  and 
sometimes  higher  in  the  air.  The  swallows  were  catching  flies  and 
small  insects  for  food  as  they  flew  about. 

When  the  swallow  goes  to  his  nest  for  the  night,  the  Ixtt  comes 
out  to  catch  flies  and  mosquitoes  for  his  food.  Thus  you  see  the  bat 
is  a  useful  animal,  and  you  need  not  fear  it.  It  does  not  wish  to 
hurt  us ;  it  only  wants  to  catch  the  flies  and  other  insects  which 
annoy  us.  Do  not  fear  the  bat,  but  watch  the  next  one  that  you 
see,  and  feel  glad  that  it  catches  so  many  flies  for  its  supper. 

Bats  take  a  drink  of  water  after  eating,  but  they  do  not  stop  to 
drink ;  they  fly  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  take  a  sip  without 
stopping. 

Look  at  this  picture  of  bats.*  Some  are  flying,  some  are  hanging 
up  by  their  hind  feet,  ready  to  sleep.  This  is  the  way  they  hang  in 
the  daytime  when  they  sleep.  They  fly  about  at  night,  and  sleep  in 
the  daytime.  They  sleep  in  some  dark  hole  in  a  tree,  or  in  a  dark 
place  among  rocks.  They  hang  themselves  up  by  their  hind  feet, 
and  fold  their  wings  around  the  body  as  you  see  in  the  picture. 
They  sleep  all  winter  without  eating. 

The  head  is  shaped  somewhat  like  that  of  a  mouse,  but  its  nose  is 
much  shorter.  Its  eyes  are  very  bright.  It  has  long  ears,  and  hears 
very  quickly  the  least  noise.  The  mouth  contains  small,  sharp  teeth, 
somewhat  like  the  cat's  teeth  in  shape.  It  will  bite  if  you  take  it  in 
your  hand. 

Its  wings  are  very  curious.  They  are  made  of  thin  skin,  without 
any  feathers.  It  has  a  pair  of  hooks  on  each  wing.  When  it  alights 
for  a  moment,  it  can  hold  itself  up  by  these  hooks.  The  body  is  cov- 
ered with  a  soft,  thick  fur  like  that  of  a  mouse.  Some  are  gray,  and 
some  are  brown.  Did  you  ever  see  a  brown  bat  ?  Were  you  afraid 
of  it? 


*  Prantfs  Natural  History  Series  contains  an  excellent  picture  of  bats  in 
each  of  these  positions. 


188  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The  cry  of  the  bat  is  very  weak — not  so  loud  as  that  of  a  mouse. 
Did  you  ever  hear  a  bat  squeak  or  cry  ?  It  is  said  that  they  are  very 
cleanly ;  that  they  comb  their  fur  carefully,  and  part  it  with  their 
claws. 

Bats  and  swallows  are  useful  in  catching  flies  and  other  insects, 
and  thus  prevent  them  from  becoming  too  numerous  and  trouble- 
some. 

THE  MOUSE. 

Did  you  ever  see  that  very  little  animal  with  bright  eyes,  soft 
fur,  and  long  tail,  which  creeps  slyly  out  of  a  little  hole  in  the  cor- 
ner, looks  around,  and  then  runs  quickly  across  the  room  ?  What 
is  the  name  of  it  ? 

Its  teeth  are  sharp  and  strong,  and  made  for  gnawing  holes.  It 
has  four  very  small  feet,  and  can  run  without  making  a  noise.  Its 
tail  is  long,  but  very  small,  and  has  no  hair  on  it.  It  has  large  ears 
and  bright  eyes,  so  that  it  can  hear  the  least  noise  and  see  the  least 
movement.  It  is  a  very  timid  animal,  and  runs  away  when  it  hears 
a  noise ;  but  it  creeps  softly  back  again  when  all  is  quiet.  Of  what 
is  this  animal  afraid  ? 

It  comes  out  of  its  hole  to  get  crumbs  of  bread  and  cake.  It  is 
very  fond  of  cheese  also.  Sometimes  it  gnaws  holes  in  a  box  or 
closet  to  get  at  something  inside.  When  it  has  had  enough  food  it 
goes  back  to  its  house,  or  nest,  which  is  made  soft  and  warm  inside, 
so  that  the  little  mice  may  not  get  cold. 

Do  you  like  to  have  mice  in  your  house  ?  What  do  you  do  to  get 
rid  of  them  ?  What  can  you  tell  about  mice  ?  Look  at  this  picture, 
and  tell  me  what  you  see  in  it.* 

Children.  What  a  funny  mouse,  with  such  a  long,  long  tail ! 

Teacher.  That  is  called  a  jumping  mouse;  it  is  somewhat  like  a 
kangaroo  —  its  hind  legs  are  so  much  longer  than  its  front  ones. 
This  mouse  does  not  run  like  other  mice,  but  it  jumps,  making  long 
leaps,  as  you  see  in  this  picture.* 

The  large  mouse  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  picture  is  a 
meadow  mouse.  Its  tail  is  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  jumping 
mouse,  and  it  is  also  shorter  than  the  tail  of  the  house  mouse. 

The  larger  picture  on  the  right-hand  side  is  that  of  a  rat.  The 
rat  and  mouse  belong  to  the  same  family,  but  they  do  not  often  live 
in  the  same  house. 

Can  you  tell  something  about  mice  and  rats  ? 

*  Prang1  s  Natural  History  Series. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  189 

THE  RABBIT. 

Most  children  can  tell  something  about  rabbits — of  their  long 
ears,  pink  eyes ;  that  their  hind  legs  are  longer  than  their  front 
legs ;  that  they  move  by  jumps,  instead  of  walking,  as  cats  and 
dogs  do ;  that  they  dig  holes  in  the  ground  to  live  in  ;  that  these 
holes  are  called  burrows ;  that  some  children  have  pet  rabbits. 

After  all  the  facts  which  the  pupils  can  state  about  rabbits 
have  been  given,  additional  facts  may  be  stated  by  the  teacher, 
such  as  that  their  food  consists  of  grass,  grain,  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  the  bark  of  young  trees;  that  they  are  very  timid  when 
wild;  that  tame  rabbits  are  white,  black,  and  of  other  colors, 
while  wild  ones  are  usually  brown  in  summer,  but  of  a  grayish- 
white  in  winter;  that  they  lay  back  their  ears,  so  as  to  hear 
when  an  enemy  approaches  them  from  behind ;  that  their  eyes 
are  so  placed  near  the  top  of  the  head  that  they  can  readily 
see  anything  that  comes  from  either  direction ;  and  that  they 
must  depend  upon  flight  for  safety,  as  they  have  no  means  of 
defence. 

The  wild  rabbits  are  full  of  odd  tricks  which  are  amusing.  They 
come  from  their  burrows  about  sunset,  also  in  the  morning  just 
before  sunrise.  When  a  person  has  once  seen  the  comical  move- 
ments of  these  creatures  in  their  native  home,  he  will  desire  to 
see  them  again  and  again  in  their  gambols  and  laughable  antics. 

When  one  rabbit  wishes  to  call  another  from  his  burrow,  he 
goes  near  the  mouth  of  a  hole,  and  with  its  hind  feet  gives  a 
tap-tapping  on  the  ground.  If  a  rabbit  does  not  soon  come  out, 
he  goes  to  another  hole,  and  repeats  his  tapping  on  the  ground. 
Sometimes  an  old  rabbit  rushes  out,  and  begins  to  fight  this  dis- 
turber of  his  peace.  They  leap  over  each  other,  and  kick  their 
enemy  with  their  hind  feet ;  each  trying  to  jump  the  highest  and 
kick  the  hardest.  They  have  great  strength  with  their  hind  feet, 
and  often  knock  each  other  down. 

Rabbits  give  a  signal  of  danger  by  a  sound  like  tap-pat.  When 
this  sound  is  made,  all  the  rabbits  rush  for  their  burrows.  Some- 
times rabbits  fight  by  striking  their  heads  together. 

The  rabbit  is  a  gnawing  animal.     Its  front  teeth  are  like  those 


190  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  a  rat.  It  often  does  great  injury  to  trees  by  gnawing  the  bark 
near  the  ground.  The  flesh  of  the  rabbit  is  used  for  food,  and  its 
skin  for  clothing. 

THE  ROBIN. 

Teacher — holding  a  picture  of  a  robin  before  the  class — says,  How 
many  of  you  have  seen  a  bird  like  the  one  in  this  picture  ?  All  of 
you  ?  Then  Willie  may  tell  the  name  of  it.  Mary,  where  did  you  see 
a  robin  ? 

Do  robins  walk  or  hop  when  they  move  on  the  ground  ?  Do  they 
often  stop  when  walking  ?  Do  they  walk  fast  ?  Did  you  ever  see 
a  robin's  nest?  James  may  tell  us  where  he  saw  a  nest,  and  what  it 
was  made  of. 

James.  I  saw  a  robin's  nest  in  an  apple-tree.  It  was  built  in  a  fork 
of  the  branches,  of  sticks  and  grass. 

T.  Robins  often  build  nests  in  trees  near  a  house.  They  make  them 
of  small  sticks,  dry  grass,  and  hair.  Only  two  robins  attend  to  one 
nest.  The  female  robin  gathers  the  materials  and  builds  the  nest, 
and  the  male  robin  acts  as  a  sentinel  to  give  alarm  if  any  enemy 
comes  near;  and  he  guards  the  nest  so  that  other  birds  may  not  steal 
it  while  the  female  is  away  gathering  more  materials.  It  takes  three 
or  four  days  to  finish  a  nest.  The  female  shapes  the  inside  of  it  by 
turning  round  and  round  in  it  many  times,  with  her  tail  hugging  it 
close  on  the  outer  rim. 

Usually  three  or  four  eggs  are  laid.  The  robin  sits  eleven  days  to 
hatch  her  young.  In  about  eight  days  the  young  robins  are  covered 
with  pin-feathers,  and  their  eyes  are  open ;  in  eleven  or  twelve  days 
more  they  leave  their  nests,  and  are  taken  care  of  by  the  male  robin. 
As  soon  as  the  young  birds  are  out  of  their  shells  the  male  robin  pro- 
vides the  food,  keeps  the  nest  clean,  and  sits  on  it  to  keep  the  young 
birds  warm  when  the  mother-bird  is  absent  in  search  of  food. 

In  a  few  days  after  the  first  brood  leaves  the  nest,  the  female  gath- 
ers new  materials  and  builds  another  nest,  usually  not  far  from  the 
first,  and  prepares  for  a  second  family.  The  robin  rears  but  two 
broods  in  one  season. 

The  chief  food  of  the  robin  is  worms  and  other  insects.  He  is  the 
former's  best  friend.  A  multitude  of  insects  are  bred  in  the  earth, 
and  the  robin  consumes  a  large  number  of  them.  If  all  of  these 
insects  were  left  to  feed  on  vegetables  and  fruits,  the  destruction  of 
them  would  be  so  great  that  both  beast  and  man  would  suffer  for 
the  want  of  food. 

Robins  eat  but  a  few  cherries,  or  other  fruits,  until  after  his  destruc- 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  191 

tion  of  insects  has  saved  the  farmer  more  than  the  value  of  his  fruit. 
During  a  single  year  a  pair  of  robins  will  save  ten  times  more  fruit 
and  grain  than  all  they  consume.  The  robin  deserves  to  be  treated 
kindly  for  all  the  good  that  he  does ;  but  too  often  he  is  abused, 
stoned,  and  shot  by  those  who  do  not  know  his  real  character  and 
value  to  the  farmer. 

The  male  and  female  robins  do  not  differ  much  in  size ;  but  the 
female  is  of  a  lighter  color,  and  has  no  rosy  color  on  the  neck  and 
breast.  The  male  bird  is  often  called  "  robin-red-breast."  Both  of 
these  birds  have  large,  bright  eyes. 

It  is  the  male  robin  whose  song  is  heard  ringing  out  so  clearly 
early  in  the  morning  and  late  at  night.  The  notes  of  the  robin  may 
be  heard  at  the  first  dawn  of  light,  long  before  the  sun  is  up,  and 
when  evening  twilight  has  faded  almost  into  the  darkness  of  night. 
Do  you  know  what  the  robin  says  when  he  sings  ?  Somebody  told 
me  that  he  said, 

"Jonathan  Gillet  scoured  the  skillet; 
Scoured  it  neat,  scoured  it  clean." 

Listen  to  his  song,  and  see  if  you  think  he  says  this. 

I  hope  you  will  watch  the  robin,  learn  much  about  its  habits,  learn 
to  look  at  it  as  a  friend,  and  to  treat  it  with  kindness. 

TH£  EARTH-WORM. 

I  think  all  of  you  have  seen  a  long,  slender  worm  of  a  pinkish 
color,  without  legs,  crawl  out  of  a  hole  in  the  ground  after  a  shower 
of  rain.  Did  you  ever  watch  the  movements  of  this  earth-worm,  and 
learn  how  it  can  crawl  without  legs  ? 

If  you  examine  it  carefully  as  it  moves,  you  will  observe  that  its 
body  contains  a  great  many  rings,  placed  at  little  distances  from 
each  other.  If  you  could  count  them,  you  would  find  more  than 
one  hundred  in  all.  When  the  worm  crawls  you  can  see  these  rings 
separate,  or  stretch  apart,  as  about  half  of  the  body  stretches  forward : 
then  these  rings  come  near  together  again,  as  the  back  part  of  the 
body  is  drawn  forward. 

This  worm  has  four  long  muscles  which  extend  the  whole  length 
of  its  body ;  and  it  can  lengthen  or  shorten  these  muscles,  and  thus 
separate  the  rings,  or  draw  them  together. 

The  earth-worm  has  a  pointed  head,  which  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  tail  by  being  more  pointed  than  the  tail.  It  has  a  mouth, 
but  no  eyes  nor  teeth,  and  does  not  hear  nor  smell.  It  has  the  sense 
of  touch  and  of  taste.  The  sense  of  touch  is  keen,  as  may  be  seen  by 
touching  it  lightly  as  it  peers  above  its  hole.  It  feeds  upon  the  soil 


192  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

it  lives  in,  swallowing  it  and  the  half-decayed  organic  substances  in 
it,  and  passes  them  through  the  body,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  casts 
around  their  holes. 

It  is  supposed  that  these  worms  breed  once  a  year.  Their  young 
are  produced  from  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  clusters  at  considerable 
depth  in  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  spring,  and  hatched 
in  June  and  July.  The  egg  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  with  a  hole 
in  one  end,  through  which  the  young  worm  escapes. 

If  the  worm  be  cut  in  two  behind  the  belt  of  rings — which  is  about 
one-third  of  its  length  back  of  its  mouth — this  part  of  the  worm  will 
grow  out  again ;  but  if  the  body  be  cut  in  two  at  the  belt,  or  between 
the  belt  and  the  head,  the  worm  will  die. 

You  have  probably  seen  the  earth-worm  used  for  bait  when  fish- 
ing, and  many  think  it  good  for  nothing  else.  The  real  uses  of  this 
worm  appear  to  be  to  furnish  food  for  moles,  toads,  frogs,  snakes,  the 
robin  and  other  birds,  and  also  for  fishes  and  some  kinds  of  insects. 
They  do  more  harm  than  good  to  vegetation.  They  eat  into  roots 
of  plants.  The  earth-worm  is  found  where  man  dwells,  but  not  in 
the  forests  until  carried  there  by  man. 

Earth-worms  can  be  destroyed  when  they  become  so  numerous  as 
to  injure  plants.  They  are  very  thin-skinned,  and  any  hot  or  caustic 
liquid — like  lime-water  or  weak  lye — will  kill  them.  If  the  earth  be 
shaken  where  these  worms  are  abundant,  they  crawl  out  of  their 
holes,  as  if  afraid.  Some  birds  know  this  habit  of  these  worms, 
and  they  stamp  with  their  feet  on  the  ground  about  these  holes; 
and  as  the  worm  comes  out  the  bird  catches  it  with  its  long  bill. 


THE   SNAIL. 

Before  giving  this  lesson,  several  snail-shells  should  be  procured ; 
also  two  or  three  live  snails. 

Let  pupils  examine  the  shells  and  notice  the  spiral  shape ;  tell 
them  that  each  turn  or  twist  of  the  shell  is  called  a  whorl;  that 
all  the  whorls  together  are  called  a  spire;  that  the  point  of  spire, 
or  cone,  is  called  the  apex ;  the  opening  of  the  shell  is  called  the 
mouth,  or  aperture;  that  the  line  dividing  the  whorls  is  called  a 
suture. 

The  shell  is  a  part  of  the  snail,  and  sometimes  is  called  its  house ; 
but  the  snail  cannot  leave  its  house  and  move'  about  without  it.  It 
cannot  live  out  of  its  house ;  so,  when  it  moves  about,  it  must  carry 
its  house  on  its  back.  When  the  snail  wants  to  move  from  place  to 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  193 

place,  it  creeps  part  way  out  of  its  house,  so  as  to  get  its  long  foot,  or 
the  flat  part  on  which  it  moves,  on  the  ground.  If  you  place  a  live 
snail  on  a  piece  of  glass,  and  watch  its  movements  as  it  crawls,  you 
can  see  how  it  moves  on  its  single  foot ;  for  the  snail  has  only  one 
foot.  As  the  snail  begins  to  move,  you  will  see  little  horns,  or  feel- 
ers, on  the  front  part  of  its  head,  moving  about  as  if  feeling  its  way 
along.  These  feelers  have  a  hard  name,  and  you  need  not  try  to  re- 
member it ;  but  if  you  should  hear  anybody  say  the  tentacles  of  the 
snail,  you  may  know  that  they  mean  t\\Q  feelers,  or  horns. 

Land-snails  have  four  horns,  or  feelers ;  and  on  the  tips  of  two  of 
them  may  be  seen  black  dots  about  as  large  as  pin-heads ;  these  are 
the  eyes  of  the  snail.  The  eyes  of  the  sea-snail  are  usually  on  small 
elevations  at  the  base  of  the  feelers.  The  mouth  is  below  and  between 
the  horns. 

Snails  and  slugs  are  soft-bodied  animals;  they  have  no  bones,  or 
rings,  or  joints  in  their  bodies.  They  have  cold  blood,  and  are  cov- 
ered with  a  skin,  from  which  oozes  a  gummy  fluid ;  as  the  snail  crawls 
along,  this  fluid  leaves  a  slimy  trail  behind  it. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  how  quickly  the  ends  of  the  feelers,  con- 
taining the  eyes,  are  drawn  back  when  they  are  touched.  This  shows 
that  the  snail  has  the  sense  of  feeling.  Let  the  pupils  also  notice  how 
the  snail  eats,  by  placing  it  on  a  leaf  of  lettuce  or  cabbage.  It  breathes 
by  holes  in  the  sides  of  its  body. 

In  autumn  land-snails  bury  themselves  in  the  ground,  retire  within 
their  shells,  and  close  the  mouth  of  the  shell  with  a  film  of  gummy 
mucus.  In  this  condition  the  snails  remain  until  the  warm  weather 
of  spring  revives  them  again. 

Snails  are  hatched  from  very  small,  jelly-like  eggs  about  the  size 
of  homoeopathic  pellets.  A  single  snail  will  lay  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred eggs.  These  eggs  possess  great  vitality,  and  may  be  dried  so 
as  to  crumble  between  the  fingers,  yet  moisture  and  warmth  will  re- 
store them  in  a  single  hour.  The  eggs  hatch  in  two  or  three  weeks ; 
and  at  first  the  young  snail  has  a  very  small  shell,  containing  only 
one  whorl  and  a  half;  but  the  shell  grows  larger  as  the  snail  grows. 

By  placing  several  snails,  early  in  spring,  in  a  box  with  earth,  rot- 
ten wood,  or  damp  leaves,  their  eggs  may  be  seen  in  a  few  weeks. 
If  the  eggs  are  kept  on  moist  leaves  in  a  warm  place,  they  will  hatch 
out,  and  small  snails  grow  during  the  summer.  If  the  shell  of  the 
snail  becomes  broken  a  little,  the  snail  can  repair  it. 

Slugs  are  snail-like  animals ;  but  they  have  no  shell  or  house. 
They  are  found  on  plants  in  gardens,  and  on  the  under  side  of 
boards  lying  on  damp  ground.  Slugs  are  very  destructive  to  plants. 

9 


194:  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Sometimes  the  gardener  puts  dry  ashes  around  his  plants  to  keep 
the  slugs  away. 

The  slug  can  spin  a  thread  of  the  slimy  substance  with  which  it 
makes  a  path  ip  creep  on,  and  lower  itself  from  a  table  to  the  floor ; 
but  it  cannot  creep  back  again  on  this  thread. 

Some  slugs  lay  five  hundred  eggs.     Toads  eat  slugs. 

THE   TOAD. 

Sometimes  when  you  go  in  the  garden  or  walk  along  a  road-side, 
after  a  shower,  you  will  see  a  little  animal  hop  out  of  your  way ; 
and  I  suppose  some  of  you  wonder  where  these  toads  came  from, 
and  wrhat  they  are  doing.  Toads  dig  holes  in  soft  earth,  or  hide  un- 
der leaves.  When  a  rain  is  over,  they  hop  out  of  their  hiding-place, 
and  hunt  for  slugs,  worms,  and  flies  for  food. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  watch  a  toad  in  the  garden,  as  he  sits 
close  to  the  ground  under  or  near  some  plant,  and  waits  for  a  fly  or 
a  worm  to  come  near  him.  If  one  appears,  the  toad  does  not  seem 
to  notice  it ;  but  as  it  conies  near,  the  tongue  of  the  toad  darts  out 
suddenly,  draws  the  insect  quickly  into  his  mouth,  and  swallow's  it. 
The  toad  does  not  seize  the  insect  while  it  is  motionless;  but  as  soon 
as  it  moves,  as  if  to  get  away,  the  wonderful  tongue  pulls  it  into  his 
mouth.  And  the  toad  continues  to  sit  quietly  in  his  place,  waiting 
for  more  food  to  move  within  the  reach  of  his  tongue. 

The  toad  is  a  much-abused  creature.  Some  people  say  that  he  is 
poisonous ;  that  if  you  touch  him  warts  will  come  on  your  hands ; 
and  many  other  bad  things  are  falsely  said  about  the  toad.  Its  skin 
does  contain  an  acrid  fluid,  which  it  can  cause  to  flow  over  its  body 
for  a  defence  against  dogs  and  other  animals.  This  is  very  offensive 
to  dogs,  but  it  is  not  poisonous  to  the  touch.  The  fact  is,  the  toad 
is  a  very  useful  animal,  both  in  gardens  and  in  fields.  He  moves 
around  at  night,  devouring  many  kinds  of  insects,  as  slugs,  worms, 
moths,  caterpillars,  crickets,  flies,  etc.  Sometimes  gardeners  collect 
a  large  number  of  toads,  and  place  them  among  their  plants,  that 
they  may  destroy  the  insects.  Toads  are  sometimes  tamed,  and  then 
they  will  creep  out  of  their  hiding-place,  on  hearing  a  familiar  call 
or  whistle,  to  eat  the  flies,  spiders,  beetles,  slugs,  or  other  insects  that 
are  placed  before  them. 

Do  not  abuse  the  homely  toad ;  he  is  much  better  than  he  looks. 
When  you  have  watched  him  while  he  catches  flies,  and  remember 
how  useful  he  is,  you  will  not  think  of  his  appearance. 

Did  you  ever  see  polliwigs  in  a  small  pond  of  water,  in- the  spring- 
time ?  Tadpole  is  another  name  for  this  little  animal.  Do  you  know 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  195 

what  becomes  of  these  tadpoles  ?  If  you  should  take  some  of  them 
out  of  the  pond,  and  keep  them  in  a  basin  of  water  for  a  few  days, 
you  would  see  some  wonderful  changes.  First,  two  small  feet  and 
legs  would  come  out  near  the  tail.  Soon  afterward  two  more  legs 
would  appear  near  the  head.  In  a  few  days  after  the  tail  becomes 
shorter  and  shorter,  until  it  all  disappears,  and  the  tadpole  has  be- 
come a  toad;  it  then  creeps  out  of  the  water,  and  hops  away  to  hunt 
for  food.  Did  you  ever  catch  tadpoles,  and  watch  them  as  they 
change  into  toads  ? 

I  will  tell  you  one  more  interesting  fact  about  the  toad,  which  you 
might  not  learn  unless  you  should  watch  him  for  many  months.  The 
skin  of  the  toad  is  its  dress.  As  the  young  toad  grows,  his  dress  be- 
comes too  small  for  him,  and  it  splits  open  ;  then  he  pulls  it  off,  and 
eats  it  up.  How  do  you  suppose  he  gets  a  new  dress  ?  Before  the 
old  skin  splits  open,  a  new  skin  grows  under  it;  so,  when  the  old 
dress  is  pulled  off,  the  new  dress  is  already  finished  and  on  the  toad. 
In  this  way  the  toad  changes  his  dress  once  a  year;  and  he  rolls  the 
old  dress  up  in  a  ball  and  swallows  it.  Snakes  change  their  dresses 
once  a  year,  but  they  do  not  eat  up  their  old  clothes;  they  crawl 
out  and  leave  them.  Perhaps  you  have  seen  an  old  dress  that  some 
snake  had  left  on  the  ground. 

THE  GRASSHOPPER. 

Did  you  know  that  a  grasshopper  is  a  fiddler?  You  have  heard 
the  music  made  by  this  insect,  and  many  have  supposed  that  he 
made  it  with  his  mouth,  as  children  do  when  they  sing;  but  that  is 
not  the  way  his  music  is  made.  I  will  tell  you  how  he  does  make 
his  music;  then,  if  you  sometimes  see  him  while  he  is  fiddling,  you 
will  know  what  he  is  doing. 

If  you  will  carefully  examine  a  grasshopper,  look  at  the  veins  run- 
ning through  the  wings  and  in  the  wing-covers,  and  also  examine 
his  hind  legs,  and  you  will  see  what  he  uses  for  his  fiddles.  The 
edges  of  the  wings  and  the  wing-covers  are  the  strings,  and  the  hind  legs 
of  this  insect  are  the  bows.  When  the  grasshopper  begins  to  play  on 
his  fiddles,  he  bends  the  shank  of  one  hind  leg  beneath  the  thigh, 
and  then  draws  the  leg  up  and  down  against  the  edges  of  the  wings 
or  wing-covers.  He  does  not  use  one  bow  all  the  time,  but  changes, 
and  moves  the  shank  of  the  other  hind  leg  as  before,  playing  awhile 
with  that.  Some  grasshoppers  rub  one  wing-cover  upon  the  veins 
of  the  other;  some  rub  together  the  front  edge  of  the  wings  and  the 
under  surface  of  the  wing-covers. 

Crickets  make  their  chirping  sounds  by  rubbing  the  base  of  one 


196  MAN  UAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

wing  -  cover  upon  the  veins  running  through  the  middle  of  the 
wing. 

I  will  tell  you  how  to  get  very  near  a  grasshopper,  so  that  you  can 
see  him  fiddle.  When  you  hear  a  grasshopper's  music,  walk  very 
quietly  toward  the  sound  until  it  stops,  and  then  wait  for  it  to  begin 
again.  Now  try  to  determine  the  location  of  the  insect ;  then  step 
quickly,  but  quietly,  within  five  or  six  feet  of  the  fiddler,  and  get  on 
your  hands  and  knees;  then  rub  the  edge  of  a  quill  on  a  file,  which 
you  have  taken  with  you,  to  imitate  the  sounds  of  the  grasshopper. 
First  make  the  sounds  softly,  separating  them  by  considerable  inter- 
vals ;  then  make  them  louder,  and  in  quicker  succession.  In  a  little 
time  the  grasshopper  will  forget  his  fears  at  your  approach,  and  be- 
gin to  fiddle  so  loudly  that  you  can  creep  still  nearer,  so  as  to  see  all 
the  movements  of  your  insect  musician. 

Grasshoppers  shed  their  skins  several  times  as  they  grow  larger. 
You  may  be  able  to  find  some  of  this  young  musician's  old  clothes 
— fiddle,  strings,  and  bows — hanging  on  a  spire  of  grass,  and  then 
you  can  examine  them  carefully. 

Grasshoppers  are  hatched  from  eggs.  The  young  grasshopper  is 
very  small,  and  has  no  wings.  As  it  grows,  its  first  suit  becomes 
too  small,  splits  open,  and  the  insect  crawls  out  in  a  new  suit  of 
clothes.  The  insect  continues  to  grow — changing  his  old  clothes 
for  new  ones — until  he  has  attained  his  full  size,  and  has  all  his  mu- 
sical instruments  complete. 

Sometimes  little  boys  are  cruel  to  these  fiddlers,  and  steal  their 
lows.  Then  the  poor  insect  cannot  make  any  more  music,  nor  hop 
out  of  your  path.  Is  it  right  to  treat  the  grasshopper  so  ? 

THE  SPIDER. 

Some  spiders  are  spinners  and  weavers;  some  are  hunters;  some  fly 
"kites;  and  some  are  ~balloonists.  When  would  you  call  a  spider  a  spin- 
ner ?  When  a  weaver  ?  When  a  hunter  ?  Can  jrou  tell  what  they  do 
that  resembles  kite-flying?  Did  you  ever  hear  of  their  making  bal- 
loons, and  going  up  in  the  air  with  them  ? 

Weaving-spider. — Probably  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  tell  some- 
thing about  the  spider  spinning  and  weaving  its  web ;  possibly  they 
may  have  seen  the  woven  webs  prepared  for  catching  flies.  Having 
obtained  from  the  pupils  what  they  know  about  this  work  of  the 
spider,  proceed  to  give  other  facts ;  among  them,  tell  how  the  spider 
hunts  for  food. 

Hunting- spider. — This  spider  does  not  build  nests,  but  it  wanders 
about  until  it  comes  near  a  fly  or  other  insect,  then  it  suddenly  springs 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  197 

upon  it  like  a  cat.     The  hunting-spider  is  small,  and  its  color  black 
and  white. 

The  Spider's  Kite. — When  a  spider  wants  to  stretch  a  web  from 
one  high  place  to  another — as  from  a  post  to  a  fence — she  watches 
and  waits  until  the  wind  blows  in  the  right  direction  to  carry  her 
fine  string  where  she  wants  to  fasten  it.  Then  she  spins  a  little  ball 
or  bunch  of  web,  fastens  the  fine  string  to  it,  and  as  she  spins  lets  the 
wind  carry  her  kite  and  string  to  the  fence  or  other  object.  When 
it  reaches  the  desired  point,  and  becomes  fast,  the  spider  fastens  her 
end  of  the  thread,  and  then  goes  over  the  fine  string  and  fastens 
the  other  end  more  securely.  Sometimes  she  adds  one  or  two  more 
threads  to  this  line,  to  make  it  stronger. 

The  Balloon-spider. — The  balloonists  are  young  spiders.  When 
the  air  is  favorable,  they  throw  up  long  threads  which  float  in  the 
air.  These  threads  are  folded  together  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  form 
a  place  for  the  young  spider  to  lie.  When  all  is  ready  for  the  start, 
the  little  air-voyager  gets  upon  her  balloon,  folds  up  her  legs,  and 
the  wind  carries  her  a  long  distance  over  the  fields.  In  the  autumn 
the  long  threads  of  the  balloon-spider  may  be  seen  in  the  morning 
on  the  grass,  covered  with  dew. 

Insects. — Ants,  flies,  bees,  and  butterflies  are  insects.  Their  bodies 
are  divided  into  three  parts — the  head,  the  middle  body,  or  thorax, 
and  the  hind  body,  or  abdomen.  The  legs  and  wings  of  insects  are 
attached  to  the  middle  body. 

If  you  examine  the  body  of  a  spider,  you  will  find  it  divided  into 
only  two  parts — the  head  body  and  the  hind  body.  Spiders  have  eight 
eyes,  like  small  black  beads,  and  four  pairs  of  legs.  Flies,  bees,  and 
ants  have  only  three  pairs  of  legs.  The  feet  of  the  spider  are  adapt- 
ed to  walking  on  the  web.  Each  foot  is  furnished  with  three  claws ; 
the  middle  one  is  bent  over  at  the  end,  forming  a  long  finger  for 
clinging  to  the  web,  or  for  guiding  the  thread  in  spinning.  The 
outer  claws  are  curved,  and  toothed  like  a  comb.  Opposite  the  claws 
are  several  stiff  hairs,  which  are  toothed  like  the  claws,  and  serve  as 
a  thumb  for  the  claws  to  shut  against. 

At  the  hinder  end  of  the  spider  there  are  little  protuberances, 
called  spinnerets,  arranged  in  pairs.  These  contain  a  fluid  somewhat 
resembling  the  white  of  an  egg.  The  spinnerets  are  covered  with 
fine,  jointed,  hollow  hairs,  through  which  this  fluid  flows  out,  form- 
ing the  finest  of  fibres — so  fine  that  hundreds  of  them  united  to- 
gether form  the  single  thread  of  a  spider's  web,  which  is  strong 
enough  to  hold  a  fly  when  struggling  to  escape. 


198  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  spiders,  and  they  have  many  interesting 
habits,  which,  may  be  discovered  by  carefully  watching  them.  The 
female  spider  does  the  spinning  and  weaving,  and  she  lives  on  the 
web  when  finished.  The  male  spider  is  seldom  seen  during  the 
daytime. 

The  young  spiders  are  hatched  from  eggs ;  and  they  shed  their 
skins,  as  they  grow  up,  as  grasshoppers  do.  The  eggs  of  the  spider 
are  deposited  in  a  ball-like  sack ;  and  this  sack  may  be  found  under 
stones,  boards,  logs,  etc.  The  sack  of  spiders'  eggs  may  be  kept  in  a 
box  or  bottle,  and  in  due  time  the  young  spiders  will  hatch  out.  A 
hundred  of  them  may  hatch  from  a  single  sack,  but  usually  not  more 
than  one-tenth  of  them  live  to  reach  adult  size. 

Although  so  generally  dreaded,  spiders  may  be  handled  with  safety. 
They  can  bite  only  that  which  comes  between  their  jaws,  and  these 
are  so  small  that  it  is  very  rarely  that  they  attempt  to  bite  anything 
except  an  insect.  Each  little  jaw  of  the  spider  has  a  minute  hole 
near  the  end ;  and  when  an  insect  is  bitten  a  small  drop  of  a  poison- 
ous fluid  is  forced  through  these  little  holes  into  the  wound  inflicted, 
and  this  kills  the  fly  or  other  insect.  This  poison  has  about  the  same 
effect  on  a  person  as  the  bite  of  a  mosquito.  Very  large  spiders — 
such  as  are  found  in  hot  countries — are  more  poisonous.  The  com- 
mon spider  is  very  timid,  and  is  more  anxious  to  escape  by  running 
away  than  to  .defend  itself. 

THE  BUTTERFLY. 

Teacher.  What  are  hats  for? 

Children.  To  wear  on  the  head. 

T.  I  thought  so ;  but  I  saw  a  boy  spoiling  his  hat  by  trying  to 
catch  a  butterfly.  I  know  you  like  to  see  butterflies,  and  like  to 
chase  them,  so  I  will  tell  you  how  to  catch  them  without  spoiling 
your  hat.  Make  a  small  hoop  of  rattan,  or  of  willow,  about  the  size 
of  your  hat-rim.  Fasten  it  to  a  handle  about  three  feet  long,  and 
get  your  sister  to  make  a  small  bag  of  mosquito-netting,  and  fasten 
it  around  the  hoop.  When  you  want  to  catch  butterflies,  take  this 
hoop,  creep  near  them,  and  swing  your  net  over  them. 

Butterflies  are  among  the  most  beautifully  clothed  of  the  insect 
tribes.  They  seem  to  spend  a  life  of  simple  enjoyment.  But  where 
do  these  beautiful  creatures  come  from  ?  They  are  not  the  children 
of  big  butterflies.  I  will  tell  you  something  about  these  fairy  beings, 
and  then  you  must  try  to  learn  more  by  watching  them,  and  observ- 
ing their  changes. 

Eggs  are  laid  by  a  butterfly;  from  these  eggs  caterpillars  are 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  199 

hatched.  The  caterpillar  eats,  grows,  sheds  its  skin ;  eats,  grows, 
and  sheds  its  skin  several  times.  During  this  stage  the  caterpillar 
is  called  a  larva,  which  means  a  mask.  It  is  so  called  because  the 
future  form  of  the  insect  is  hidden  in  the  larva.  When  the  cater- 
pillar attains  its  full  growth  it  stops  eating,  and  remains  quiet  as  if 
asleep.  This  is  called  the  pupa,  or  baby  state.  The  pupa  form  of 
the  caterpillar  is  commonly  called  a  chrysalis.  In  a  few  weeks  the 
pupa  bursts  its  skin,  and  a  butterfly  conies  forth. 

Moths  of  all  kinds  pass  through  changes,  from  eggs  to  worms  or 
larva  and  the  pupa  states.  Moths  usually  enclose  themselves  in  a 
cocoon  during  the  pupa  state. 

Silk -worms  are  kinds  of  moth  larva.  See  the  lesson  on  silk, 
page  160. 

Objects  for  other  Lessons. — Objects  suitable  for  other 
similar  lessons  may  be  chosen  from  the  following  list,  and  the 
teacher  usually  will  be  able  to  find  the  needed  information  to  sup- 
plement such  facts  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  pupils  through 
their  personal  observations : 

Mosquito,  Cricket,  Ant, 

Katydid,  Canary,  Fly, 

Beetle,  Dove,  Horse, 

Turtle,  Turkey,  Sheep, 

Fish,  Swan,  Cow, 

Snake,  Goose,  Weasel, 

Frog,  Honey-bee,  Monkey. 


SIMPLE   CLASSIFICATIONS. 

AN  exercise  for  leading  the  pupils  to  observe  such  prominent 
characteristics  of  animals  as  may  be  made  a  basis  for  arranging 
them  in  groups  will  be  interesting  and  profitable.  The  groups 
of  animals  given  on  pages  200  and  201  will  indicate  the  classes 
which  the  pupils  can  form  by  means  of  their  own  observation 
of  animals,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  pictures  of  them. 


200 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


ANIMALS    WITH    HOOFS. 


Horse, 

Goat, 

Buffalo, 

Mule, 

Cow, 

Antelope, 

Zebra, 

Ox, 

Gazelle, 

Zebu, 

Yak, 

Chamois, 

Sheep, 

«. 

Deer, 

Gnu. 

ANIMALS    WITH    HORNS. 

Cow, 

Deer, 

Gnu, 

Ox, 

Antelope, 

Zebu, 

Sheep, 

Buffalo, 

Musk-ox, 

Goat, 

Ibex, 

Yak, 

Moose, 

Reindeer, 

Eland. 

ANIMALS    WITH    SOFT    FEET. 

Cat, 

Fox,                    Camel, 

Mouse, 

Dog, 

Wolf,                  Bear, 

Rat, 

Lion, 

Tiger,                 Rabbit, 

Squirrel. 

ANIMALS    WITH    SHARP    CLAWS. 

Cat, 

Panther, 

Eagle, 

Lion, 

Lynx, 

Hawk, 

Tiger, 

Leopard, 

Owl. 

ANIMALS    WITH    LONG    NECKS. 

Horse, 

Camel, 

Llama, 

Deer, 

Giraffe, 

Gazelle. 

ANIMALS    WITH    LONG    LEGS. 

Giraffe, 

Horse, 

Gazelle, 

Camel, 

Deer, 

Chamois, 

Crane, 

Flamingo, 

Heron. 

ANIMALS    THAT    EAT    GRASS. 

Cow, 

Horse,                Deer, 

Buffalo, 

Sheep, 

Mule,                  Zebu, 

Antelope, 

Goat, 

Ox,                     Gnu, 

Camel, 

Gazelle, 

Elephant,           Zebra, 

Giraffe. 

LESSOXS  ON  ANIMALS.  201 


ANIMALS    THAT    EAT    FLESH. 

Cat, 
Dog, 
Wolf, 
Fox, 

Lion,                   Weasel, 
Tiger,                  Otter, 
Leopard,             Lynx, 
Hyena,               Jackal, 

Hawk, 

Eagle, 
Owl, 
Vulture. 

ANIMALS    WHOSE    FLESH    MAN 

EATS. 

Cow, 
Ox, 
Sheep, 
Pig, 

Deer,                   Duck, 
Buffalo,              Goose, 
Squirrel,              Hen, 
Rabbit,               Turkey, 

Quail, 
Pigeon, 
Woodcock, 
Partridge. 

ANIMALS    WITH    WINGS. 

Hen, 
Turkey, 
Duck, 
Goose, 

Canary,               Hawk, 
Robin,                 Owl, 
Sparrow,            Eagle, 
Pigeon,               Vulture, 

Swallow, 
Bat, 
Wren, 
Quail. 

ANIMALS    WITH    FUR. 

Beaver, 
Otter, 
Seal, 

Mink, 
Weasel, 
Squirrel, 

Sable, 
Marten, 
Chinchilla. 

202  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


LESSONS   ON  ANIMALS. 
THIRD  STAGE. 

[Appropriate  for  children  during  their  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years  in  school.'] 

WHEN  the  pupils  have  had  a  year  or  two  of  such  expe- 
riences in  observing  the  habits  of  different  kinds  of  ani- 
mals as  is  contemplated  by  the  lessons  of  the  second  stage, 
they  will  be  fully  prepared  to  compare  the  habits  and 
structure  of  similar  animals,  and  thus  become  familiar 
with  their  leading  family  characteristics. 

The  first  lessons  should  commence  with  animals  that 
the  pupils  can  examine  personally ;  as  the  -duck,  the  hen, 
the  cat,  the  cow,  etc.  In  cases  where  several  animals  of 
the  same  kind  cannot  be  examined  personally  by  the  pu- 
pils, pictures  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  in  making  the 
comparisons  as  to  their  form  and  structure. 

The  outline  of  a  few  lessons  is  here  given,  to  indicate 
the  general  plan  of  conducting  the  exercises  in  natural 
history  for  the  third  stage.  Following  these  lessons  are 
the  names  of  several  other  animals,  with  brief  statements 
of  facts  concerning  them,  which  the  teacher  may  use  as 
materials  in  preparing  lessons.  In  giving  these  lessons, 
it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  direct  special  attention 
of  the  pupils  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  points  in 
relation  to  each  animal.  That  point  in  relation  to  any 
one  which  is  most  familiar  to  the  pupils  will  indicate 
where  the  lesson  on  that  animal  may  commence : 

The  habits  of  the  animal,  or  what  it  usually  does. 

Where  it  is  found;  its  mode  of  living. 

How  it  moves ;  kind  of  food  eaten  l>y  it. 

Its  structure;  whether  that  of  a-  Urd,  quadruped,  fish, 
reptile,  insect,  etc. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  203 

Its  shape  and  size. 
Its  covering  and  color. 
Its  uses. 

How  its  structure  adapts  it  to  its  mode  of  life,  to  its 
Tidbits,  food,  uses,  etc. 

THE  DUCK. 

If  the  duck  be  selected  as  the  subject  for  the  first  lesson,  let 
the  pupils  be  required,  as  an  introductory  exercise,  to  tell  what 
they  know  already  about  the  shape  of  the  duck's  body,  head, 
neck,  beak,  and  feet.  Let  them  describe  some  of  the  habits  of 
the  duck — tell  what  it  does,  its  uses,  color,  where  found,  etc. 

Request  the  pupils  to  make  further  observations,  that  they  may 
ascertain  and  report  at  the  next  lesson  how  many  toes  ducks 
have ;  what  is  between  their  toes ;  how  they  use  their  feet ;  the 
position  of  the  legs  on  the  body ;  whether  the  legs  are  short  or 
long ;  whether  their  feathers  hang  loosely,  or  lap  upon  each  other 
closely ;  what  is  under  their  feathers ;  about  the  oiling  of  their 
feathers ;  the  use  of  their  long  necks ;  their  broad  bills,  with  the 
comb-like  edges ;  and  what  is  their  food. 

After  full  observations  have  been  made  by  the  pupils,  and  re- 
ported in  class  exercises,  request  them  to  name  other  birds  which 
have  similar  bodies,  feet,  necks,  and  bills.  Then  let  the  pupils 
make  observations  to  see  how  these  characteristics  resemble  and 
how  they  differ  from  those  of  the  duck,  and  report  concerning 
these  also  to  the  class. 

To  facilitate  this  work  of  observation  and  comparison,  the 
teacher  may  place  before  the  class  a  large  picture  of  a  duck,  and 
let  the  pupils  point  out  each  characteristic  that  may  be  seen  in 
the  picture.  Then  pictures  representing  other  swimming  birds 
may  be  shown  the  pupils,  that  they  may  compare  the  character- 
istics of  the  birds  thus  represented  with  those  of  the  duck. 

If  the  exercises  on  this  subject  be  properly  conducted,  the  pu- 
pils will  learn  that  the  general  forms  of  swimming  birds  are — 
boat -shaped  bodies,  short  legs,  webbed  feet,  and  long  necks;  and 
that  all  ducks,  geese,  swans,  gulls,  and  many  other  birds,  belong 
to  this  group. 


204  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Before  leaving  this  group  of  birds,  request  the  pupils  to  state 
in  writing  their  principal  characteristics,  habits,  uses,  etc.,  and  to 
give  the  names  of  all  they  can  remember  as  belonging  to  the  or- 
der of  swimming  birds. 

THE  HEN. 

When  the  hen  is  made  the  subject  of  a  lesson,  require  the  pu- 
pils first  to  tell  all  they  know  about  her  general  shape,  size,  struct- 
ure, habits,  etc. ;  then  place  before  them  the  large  picture  of  a 
turkey,  and  let  them  point  out  parts  similar  to  those  of  the  hen. 

When  they  have  observed  that  the  hen  and  the  turkey  have 
heavy  bodies,  small  heads,  short  wings,  strong  but  not  very  long 
legs,  toes  nearly  straight,  with  short,  blunt  nails — three  front  toes 
longest,  hind  toe  short  and  higher  than  the  others ;  that  their 
beaks  are  short  and  stout  —  tails  large;  that  the  hen  finds  her 
food  by  scratching  the  ground;  that  both  spend  most  of  the 
time  on  the  ground ;  that  their  food  consists  of  grain,  seeds,  and 
insects ;  that  they  usually  select  some  elevated  position  —  as  a 
branch  of  a  tree — for  a  roosting-place  at  night ;  that  their  young 
are  hatched  from  eggs; — when  the  pupils  have  given  attention 
to  these  characteristics,  other  pictures  of  this  group  of  birds 
(scratching  birds)  may  be  placed  before  them,  that  they  may 
observe  similar  forms  and  characteristics  in  the  birds  represented 
by  the  pictures.  The  teacher  may  now  tell  the  pupils  a  few 
facts  about  each  of  the  birds  in  this  group :  why  they  are  called 
scratchers;  their  general  habits ;  where  found;  uses,  etc. 

When  the  exercises  on  this  group  of  birds  are  finished,  the 
pupils  will  know  that  all  hens,  turkeys,  peacocks,  Guinea-fowls, 
pheasants,  prairie-chickens,  quails,  partridges,  and  grouse  belong 
to  the  group  of  scratchers ;  and  that  pigeons,  doves,  etc.,  resemble 
those  of  this  group  in  many  respects. 

THE  QUAIL. 

Did  you  ever  hear  a  bird  say,  with  a  whistling  voice, "  Bob  White 
— Bob  White  ?"  or  "  More  wet — more  wet !"  several  times  in  succes- 
sion ?  Some  persons  think  he  says, "  Buckwheat— buckwheat  I" 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  205 

Did  you  ever  see  this  brownish  bird,  with  head  and  feet  of  the 
shape  of  those  of  a  hen,  and  body  about  the  size  of  a  chicken  when 
its  feathers  begin  to  grow  out  ?  This  bird  has  several  names ;  it  is 
called  Bob  White,  or  a  quail,  in  the  New  England  and  Middle  States, 
and  Virginia  partridge  in  the  Southern  States.  It  belongs  to  the 
gallinaceous,  or  scratching  birds,  and  the  grouse  family. 

The  body,  from  the  tip  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  is  about 
nine  inches ;  wings,  extended,  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  inches ;  beak 
short  and  blunt ;  head  small ;  legs  bare ;  the  front  toes  rest  on  the 
ground ;  hind  one  short  and  slender.  It  lives  in  fields  and  mead- 
ows ;  feeds  on  grain,  seeds,  and  insects ;  makes  its  nest  on  the 
ground;  lays  from  eight  to  ten  white  eggs.  The  young  quails 
look  like  young  chickens.  The  flesh  of  the  quail  is  much  prized 
for  food. 

Did  you  ever  read  the  story  of  a  man  who  caught  two  young 
quails  and  tamed  them  ?  Did  the  old  quail  find  them  after  they 
became  tame  ?  Can  you  tell  that  story  ? 

THE  PRAIRIE-HEN. 

This  bird  also  belongs  to  the  order  of  scratchers — to  the  grouse 
family — and  is  known  as  the  pinnated  grouse;  also  as  the  prairie- 
hen.  It  may  be  easily  tamed. 

It  is  found  in  flocks  on  the  Western  prairies ;  length  of  body, 
from  tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail,  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches ;  wings, 
when  extended,  are  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  inches;  legs  cov- 
ered with  feathers;  the  hind  toe  higher  up  on  the  leg  than  the 
front  toes.  It  feeds  on  grains,  seeds,  and  insects.  The  flesh  is  highly 
prized  for  food.  It  may  be  seen  for  sale  in  markets  during  autumn 
and  winter. 

The  prairie-hen  can  produce  sounds,  which  may  be  heard  half  a 
mile  or  more,  by  inflating  the  air  sacs  under  the  tuft  of  feathers  at 
the  sides  of  its  neck.  Did  you  ever  see  a  prairie-hen  ? 

Now  request  the  pupils  to  write  out  the  chief  characteristics  as 
to  structure,  habits,  uses,  etc.,  of  this  group  of  birds,  and  to  give 
a  list  of  those  that  belong  to  it. 


THE  CAT. 

After  the  children  have  stated  all  the  facts  which  they  have 
discovered  by  personally  observing  the  cat,  place  before  them  a 
large  picture  of  this  animal,  and  request  different  pupils  to  point 


206  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

out  each  characteristic  part  which  has  been  noticed  in  their  ex- 
amination of  the  cat. 

When  they  have  thus  shown  that  their  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  following  particularities  of  this  animal — as,  round 
head;  short  ears;  great  changes  in  eyes  in  light  and  in  dark- 
ness ;  sharp  teeth ;  rough  tongue ;  feelers ;  soft  feet ;  sharp,  hid- 
den nails ;  difference  in  number  of  toes  on  front  and  hind  feet — 
the  teacher  may  tell  the  pupils  the  use  of  each  of  these  peculiar- 
ities of  structure,  and  add  other  interesting  facts  about  the  cat's 
habits,  etc. 

At  a  subsequent  exercise  place  other  pictures  of  the  cat  family 
before  the  class,  that  they  may  compare  each  picture  with  that 
of  the  cat,  and  notice  prominent  resemblances  and  differences. 
Facts  about  each  member  of  the  cat  family  thus  shown  to  the 
pupils  may  be  stated  to  them.  Suitable  information  on  this  sub- 
ject will  be  found  in  Prang's  Natural  History  Series  for  Chil- 
dren (Cat  Family),  and  in  other  books  of  natural  history. 

Before  the  lessons  on  this  family  are  finished,  the  pupils  should 
become  familiar  with  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  cat,  and 
of  other  members  of  the  family — as,  the  Manx  cat,  Angora  cat, 
wild-cat,  lynx,  panther,  cheetah,  jaguar,  tiger,  leopard,  lion,  etc. — 
and  able  to  recognize  them  all  as  flesh-eating  animals  with  many 
similar  habits. 

Facts  about  the  cat  of  interest  to  children  may  be  found  in 
Lessons  on  Animals  for  Second  Stage.  [See  page  181.]  Request 
pupils  to  write  descriptions  of  members  of  the  cat  family. 

THE  LION. 

After  the  preceding  lesson  on  the  cat  family,  it  would  be  ap- 
propriate to  give  a  lesson  about  the  lion  in  a  different  manner 
from  the  preceding  ones — the  teacher  giving  most  of  the  infor- 
mation, somewhat  as  follows : 

A  few  days  ago  you  had  a  lesson  on  the  cat  family,  in  which  it 
was  shown  that  the  lion — sometimes  called  "king  of  beasts" — be- 
longed to  that  family.  You  may  call  him  the  great-uncle  of  the  cat. 
I  will  tell  you  something  about  this  wonderful  animal.  His  na- 
tive place  is  in  Africa ;  also  in  some  parts  of  Asia.  He  likes  to 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  207 

roam  over  stony  plains,  clotted  here  and  there  with  thickets  of 
bushes,  in  which  he  can  hide  and  watch  for  his  prey  to  come  near. 
The  home  of  the  lion  is  far  from  the  home  of  man.  People  seldom 
visit  the  places  where  lions  live,  except  as  they  go  there  to  hunt 
wild  animals. 

Lions  live  in  pairs.  They  are  usually  from  six  to  eight  feet  long, 
and  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  high.  The  weight  of  one 
is  from  four  to  five  hundred  pounds.  Their  color  is  usually  a 
tawny  yellow.  A  mane  of  long  hair  covers  the  neck  of  the  male 
lion.  The  lion  has  thirty  teeth,  which  are  sharp  and  pointed  like 
those  of  the  cat. 

The  feet  and  claws  are  also  like  those  of  the  cat  in  form,  but  very 
much  larger  and  stronger ;  and,  like  the  cat,  the  lion  can  walk  al- 
most noiselessly.  Like  the  cat,  the  lion  has  a  rough  tongue ;  but  the 
rough  points  are  much  longer  and  harder  than  those  of  the  cat. 
These  points  slant  backward,  or  toward  the  mouth,  and  are  so  strong 
that  flesh  may  be  scraped  from  bones  by  this  rough  tongue. 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  the  structure  of  the  lion  indicates  an  an- 
imal of  great  strength  and  power  in  overcoming  other  animals.  It 
is  said  that  the  lion  can  carry  a  young  ox  or  a  sheep  in  his  mouth 
with  as  much  ease  as  a  cat  can  carry  a  rat.  He  cannot  ran  as  fast 
as  a  deer  or  a  zebra,  and  could  not  get  a  good  living  by  chasing  his 
game.  In  the  country  where  the  lions  live  there  are  not  many  springs 
or  streams  of  water ;  often  the  animals  must  go  a  long  distance  to 
quench  their  thirst.  The  lion  finds  those  places  where  the  animals 
which  he  likes  for  food  go  to  get  drink.  Near  these  places  he  lies 
concealed  in  a  thicket,  watching  for  his  prey  to  come  along,  just  as 
the  cat  watches  for  the  mouse  to  come  from  its  hiding-place.  Cat- 
like, the  lion  springs  with  a  bound,  and  seizes  its  prey  with  his  mouth 
and  fore -paws.  Sometimes  it  will  spring  twenty  feet  at  a  single 
bound. 

When  the  lion  seizes  his  prey  he  usually  utters  a  terrible  roar, 
which  almost  paralyzes  the  victim  with  fear;  but  his  loudest  roar- 
ing is  made  during  the  night ;  and  in  those  secluded  regions  it 
must  produce  great  fear  among  other  animals.  His  roar  consists 
of  a  deep-toned,  moaning  sound,  repeated  five  or  six  times  in  quick 
succession,  each  time  increasing  in  loudness;  ending  with  an  audi- 
ble sigh.  Sometimes  several  lions  may  be  heard  roaring  at  the  same 
time.  What  a  concert  exercise  ! 

Like  the  cat,  the  lion  can  see  well  at  night ;  and  during  this  time 
he  goes  about,  while  during  the  day  he  sleeps  most  of  the  time  in 
his  lair,  which  is  usually  in  a  thicket,  or  by  the  side  of  a  rock.  He 
is  commonly  seen  moving  about  at  sunset,  or  just  before  sunrise. 


208  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The  lion  has  a  long  tail,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end,  like  a  tas- 
sel. When  angry,  he  lashes  his  sides  with  his  tail,  just  as  a  cat  does 
when  it  is  displeased.  It  possesses  sufficient  strength  in  its  tail  to 
knock  a  man  down  at  a  single  blow. 

Let  the  pupils  write  what  they  can  remember  concerning  the  lion. 

THE  DOG. 

When  the  pupils  have  told  what  they  know  about  dogs — their 
habits,  food,  structure,  uses,  and  the  different  kinds — place  large 
pictures  of  dogs  before  the  class,  and  let  the  pupils  point  out  and 
name  the  different  kinds,  their  parts,  etc. 

Direct  attention  to  the  attachment  of  dogs  to  their  masters — 
to  their  swiftness  in  running;  their  keen  scent;  pointed  nose; 
smooth  tongue;  flesh -tearing  teeth;  fore  feet  five  -  toed  ;  hind 
ones  four-toed ;  thin  legs ;  tails  curved  upward ;  and  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Compare  their  nails,  feet,  and  eyes  with  those  of  a  cat.  Dogs 
chase  prey ;  cats  wait  for  it  to  come  near,  then  suddenly  spring 
upon  it.  Dogs  hunt  by  day  ;  cats  hunt  at  night.  All  the  senses 
of  the  dog  are  well  developed,  especially  those  of  smell  and  hear- 
ing.* Dog  not  strictly  a  carnivorous  animal ;  when  domesti- 
cated, will  eat  all  kinds  of  food. 

Tell  stories  about  dogs.  Let  the  children  read  stories  about 
them  and  write  about  them. 

THE  WOLF. 

The  wolf  is  a  kind  of  cousin  to  the  dog.  He  belongs  to  the 
flesh-eating  quadrupeds,  and  to  the  dog  family.  In  general  ap- 
pearance he  is  much  like  the  dog,  and  his  hair  is  longer,  but  he 
lets  his  tail  hang,  instead  of  curving  it  upward  like  the  dog. 

The  wolf  growls  and  howls,  but  does  not  bark  like  a  dog.  Al- 
though he  is  cunning  and  ferocious,  he  has  not  the  dog's  noble 
courage.  He  lives  in  forests,  hunts  at  night,  and  usually  in  packs. 
Wolves  are  very  destructive  to  sheep. 

Tell  a  story  about  wolves,  and  request  the  pupils  to  read  about 
them  tit  home ;  also  to  write  about  them. 

*  See  Lesson  on  the  Dog  for  Second  Stage,  p.  185. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  209 

Foxes,  like  wolves,  belong  to  the  dog  family.  They  have  heads, 
teeth,  and  ears  much  like  some  dogs.  Foxes  hunt  at  night,  but 
singly. 

THE  COW. 

By  requiring  the  pupils  to  state  what  they  have  observed  in  re- 
lation to  the  cow's  food,  her  peculiar  manner  of  eating,  her  feet, 
horns,  teeth,  and  the  several  uses  of  the  cow ;  by  stimulating 
them  to  make  further  and  more  careful  observations  of  cows, 
sheep,  goats,  deer,  etc. ;  by  the  use  of  pictures,  and  by  awakening  a 
desire  to  read  books  of  natural  history — seek  to  make  the  pupils 
acquainted  with  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the  cud-chewing  animals. 

Direct  their  attention  to  the  following  facts  concerning  the 
group  embracing  the  cow,  ox,  bison,  sheep,  goat,  yak,  zebu,  ante- 
lope, etc. — that  these  have  hollow  horns;  feed  on  grass,  etc.; 
that  they  chew  their  food  twice ;  that  they  are  generally  timid 
animals,  and  seek  safety  in  flight ;  that  they  have  parted,  or  cloven 
hoofs.  [The  teacher  should  sketch  the  hoof  on  the  blackboard.] 


OLOVEN-UOOF.  SKULL   OF   A   COW. 

The  pupils  may  also  be  led  to  notice  from  a  sketch  on  the  black- 
board— also  from  observing  the  mouth  of  a  goat,  sheep,  or  cow 
— that  they  have  no  front  teeth  on  the  upper  jaw ;  and  also 
to  notice  that  they  get  up  on  their  hind  feet  first;  that  these 
animals  are  of  great  service  to  man ;  that  they  supply  us  with 
numerous  articles  for  food,  clothing,  and  other  purposes,  which 
contribute  much  to  our  comfort. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  write  all  the  facts  they  know  about  the  cow 
and  the  ox  at  the  close  of  the  lesson. 


210  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


THE   SHEEP. 

The  sheep  is  so  familiar  to  children  that  they  will  be  able  to 
state  many  facts  which  can  be  used  by  the  teacher  as  the  basis 
of  lessons  about  this  animal.  They  can  tell  something  about  their 
uses — their  wool  for  clothing,  their  flesh  for  food,  their  skins  for 
leather,  their  tallow,  etc.  They  may  also  know  the  names  and 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Merino,  with  its  large  horns, 
small  body,  and  very  fine,  soft  wool ;  or  of  the  Southdowns,  with 
their  dark  faces,  long  necks,  coarse  wool,  large  bodies — without 
horns  —  and  the  excellent  mutton  from  their  flesh;  or  of  the 
Leicester,  without  horns,  with  straight,  round  bodies,  broad  backs, 
and  very  long  wool. 

Direct  attention  of  the  pupils  to  their  cloven  hoofs ;  cud-chew- 
ing ;  feeding  upon  grass,  grain,  and  vegetables ;  no  front  teeth  on 
upper  jaw ;  long,  slender  head ;  horns  much  curved,  and  rough, 
like  ridges. 

Call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  sheep  follow  a  leader,  and  that, 
like  some  children,  they  do  as  their  leader  does,  without  thinking 
for  themselves.  Did  you  ever  hear  any  children  say  what  the 
others  do,  without  thinking  whether  it  is  right?  The  common 
sheep  is  called  a  stupid  animal,  because  if  one  of  the  flock  should 
jump  into  a  deep  ditch,  the  others  would  follow,  apparently  with- 
out looking  to  see  where  they  are  going. 

The  sheep  belongs  to  the  branch  vertebrates;  class, mammalia ; 
order,  ruminants;  family,  ox,  sheep,  etc. ;  genus,  ovis.  They  get 
up  on  their  hind  feet  first ;  live  in  flocks ;  their  young  are  very 
playful.  Did  you  ever  see  lambs  play  ? 

THE   CAMEL. 

Introduction  by  the  Teacher. — Far  away,  across  the  wide  ocean, 
in  the  countries  called  Africa  and  Asia,  there  are  many  large  deserts 
of  sand.  In  these  deserts  there  are  no  trees,  no  soft,  green  grasses,  no 
rains,  no  rivers,  no  roads,  no  houses,  and  no  people  living  there.  The 
sand  is  so  fine  and  dry  that  the  winds  carry  it  about  in  great  clouds. 
It  is  so  soft  that  even  a  child  would  sink  into  it  over  its  shoes  when 
walking.  Horses  cannot  travel  there,  because  their  feet  would  sink 
so  deeply  into  the  sand ;  besides,  they  would  die  of  thirst  and  him- 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  211 

ger  before  they  could  reach  a  place  where  food  and  water  might  be 
obtained.  Yet  the  people  who  live  near  these  pathless  deserts  often 
want  to  cross  them,  and  to  carry  goods  on  these  dreary  journeys. 

God  has  created  an  animal  which  is  fitted  to  live  in  just  such  a 
country.  It  is  so  formed  that  it  can  travel  in  soft  sand,  and  live  a 
long  time  without  food  or  water.  Now  I  will  show  you  a  picture 
of  that  wonderful  animal,  and  we  will  talk  about  its  structure  and 
habits.  [Showing  a  picture  of  a  camel.]  Here  is  the  picture.  Can 
you  tell  the  name  of  this  animal  ? 

Its  Feet. — Now  look  at  its  feet.  Are  they  like  the  feet  of  a 
horse  ?  The  feet  of  the  camel  are  long  and  broad,  and  soft  and 
tough.  They  are  broad  and  soft,  and  become  so  much  spread  out 
under  the  weight  of  the  animal  that  they  sink  but  little  in  the  sand; 
they  are  so  tough  that  the  sand  does  not  hurt  them.  The  small, 
hard  foot  of  a  horse  would  sink  so  far  in  the  sand  that  the  horse 
would  soon  become  exhausted;  the  cushion-shaped  feet  of  the  camel 
prevent  its  sinking,  and  thus  enable  it  to  travel  a  long  distance  with- 
out fatigue.  Its  feet  would  become  sore  on  stony  roads,  and  they  are 
not  fitted  for  travelling  in  wet  places.  The  camel  was  made  for  a 
dry  and  sandy  country. 

Its  Legs. — Do  you  see  the  logs  of  the  camel  ?  What  can  you  say 
of  them  ?  They  are  long  and  slender,  and  fit  the  camel  for  rapid 
travelling. 

Its  Neck. — What  sort  of  a  neck  has  the  camel  ?  It  has  a  very 
long,  curved,  and  slender  neck.  This  is  to  allow  its  head  to  reach 
the  ground  easily  for  food  and  water. 

Its  Head  and  Ears. — Can  you  see  its  ears  ?  Has  it  a  large,  round 
head?  No;  its  head  is  long  and  slender,  and  its  ears  are  quite 
small. 

Its  Nostrils. — The  nostrils  of  the  camel  are  so  formed  that  it  can 
close  them  at  will.  This  enables  it  to  keep  out  the  drifting  sand, 
and  prevents  a  great  deal  of  pain  and  injury  to  the  animal.  Its 
sense  of  smell  is  very  acute;  it  can  smell  water  at  a  great  distance, 
and  by  this  means  it  sometimes  saves  the  life  of  its  master. 

Its  Size  and  Shape. — The  body  of  the  camel  is  about  the  size 
of  a  horse,  but  its  back  resembles  an  arch  instead  of  being  nearly 
straight,  like  that  of  the  cow  or  horse.  It  is  generally  taller  than 
a  horse,  being  from  five  to  seven  feet  high. 

Its  Hump. — Is  the  back  of  the  camel  like  the  back  of  a  horse  or 
a  cow?  No;  it  has  a  hump  on  its  back.  This  hump  is  a  mass  of 
fat.  When  the  camel  is  fat,  the  hump  is  very  large  ;  but  when  the 


212  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

animal  is  lean,  the  hurap  is  small.  When  the  camel,  on  its  long 
journey  across  the  desert,  is  obliged  to  subsist  on  a  very  small  al- 
lowance of  food,  or  even  to  go  without  food,  the  fat  of  the  hump 
supplies  nutriment.  Its  substance  is  absorbed  and  taken  into  the 
general  circulation,  and  thus  supports  the  animal  to  the  end  of  its 
journey,  or  until  it  sinks  under  privations  which  no  other  animal 
coulfl  have  borne  for  half  the  time. 

Its  Food. — What  did  I  say  about  the  deserts  across  which  the 
camel  travels  ?  They  contain  no  trees,  and  no  green  grass.  In  some 
places,  however,  there  may  be  found  prickly  shrubs  and  a  dry,  coarse 
grass,  but  only  in  small  spots.  No  horse  or  donkey  would  eat  such 
food ;  yet  the  camel  seems  quite  contented  if,  when  it  stops  to  rest 
for  the  night,  it  can  find  even  such  coarse  food  as  thorny  shrubs  and 
dry,  coarse  grass.  Its  master,  however,  usually  takes  along  with  him 
dates  and  beans,  and  a  few  of  these  seem  to  satisfy  its  hunger  when 
a  regular  meal  cannot  be  had.  The  camel  chews  its  cud,  like  the 
cow,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat. 

Its  Drink. — You  remember  I  told  you  that  there  were  no  rains 
and  no  rivers  in  the  desert.  Frequently  it  is  necessary  to  travel  ten 
or  twelve  days  without  finding  a  spring  or  a  well  of  water.  During 
all  this  time  the  camel  must  go  without  drinking.  Here  we  see  the 
beneficence  of  the  Creator  in  the  formation  of  an  animal  so  well 
adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  man.  The  camel  has  four  stomachs ; 
one  of  these  is  provided  with  a  great  number  of  water-cells ;  and 
before  setting  out  on  a  journey  he  drinks  a  great  quantity  of  water, 
filling  all  of  these  cells.  The  water  thus  stored  up  in  its  stomach 
lasts  for  a  long  time ;  and  whenever  it  desires  to  do  so,  the  camel 
can  make  use  of  a  little  of  this  water  to  moisten  its  food  and  refresh 
itself.  By  this  means  it  can  travel  a  long  distance  without  suffering 
from  thirst. 

Its  Habits  and  Uses. — When  kindly  treated,  the  camel  is  gentle, 
patient,  and  easily  taught.  It  kneels  down  to  receive  its  load,  and 
kneels  down  again  to  have  it  removed  at  night ;  also  to  let  its  mas- 
ter mount  and  dismount.  At  night  it  lies  down  by  its  master's  tent. 
In  the  morning  it  comes  at  his  call  to  receive  its  load. 

The  camel  furnishes  milk  for  its  master's  family.  It  carries  them 
on  its  back  during  the  day,  and  often  its  side  serves  them  as  a  pil- 
low at  night.  Its  body  is  a  shelter  against  the  whirlwinds  of  sand, 
and  in  battle  an  intrenchment  behind  which  the  family  and  their 
property  are  protected.  The  hair  of  the  camel  supplies  materials 
for  clothes  and  tents ;  of  its  skin  are  made  sandals  for  the  feet,  sad- 
dles upon  which  to  ride,  buckets  for  water,  and  large  bottles  for  car- 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  213 

rying  water  to  supply  the  traveller  on  his  long  journeys  across  the 
desert.  Its  flesh  is  used  for  food. 

The  camel  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  useful  of  animals. 
The  Arabs  consider  it  as  a  "  gift  of  Heaven,"  a  sacred  animal,  with- 
out whose  assistance  they  could  neither  travel,  traffic,  nor  subsist. 
They  call  it  the  "  Ship  of  the  Desert,"  for  it  bears  them  safely  over 
the  pathless  wastes  of  Arabia  and  Northern  Africa,  under  privations 
which  no  other  animal  could  endure. 

The  usual  load  of  a  camel  is  from  six  to  eight  hundred  pounds ; 
and  with  this  weight  on  his  back  he  will  travel  from  forty  to  fifty 
miles  in  a  day.  But  the  camel  that  is  trained  for  speed  will  bear 
its  master  and  his  food  on  its  back,  and  travel  from  seventy  to  one 
hundred  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  continue  at  this  speed  for 
several  days  in  succession.  It  sometimes  performs  a  journey  of  seven 
hundred  miles. 

Training  the  Young  Caniel. — When  the  Arab  desires  a  camel  for 
speed,  he  takes  it  when  quite  young,  folds  its  limbs  under  its  body, 
and  while  in  this  situation  on  the  ground  he  loads  its  back.  This 
weight  is  removed  only  to  be  replaced  by  a  heavier  one.  Instead  of 
allowing  it  to  feed  at  pleasure  and  drink  when  thirsty,  he  regulates 
its  meals  and  drink,  and  gradually  trains  it  to  travel  long  journeys, 
and  diminishes  at  the  same  time  the  quantity  of  its  food.  When  it 
has  thus  acquired- strength  and  endurance,  it  is  trained  to  move  with 
speed.  In  this  manner  it  becomes  robust  and  fleet,  and  capable  of 
great  endurance. 

Review  the  Lesson,  —  When  the  preceding  facts  relative  to 
the  camel  have  all  been  given,  the  teacher  should  require  the  pu- 
pils to  tell  all  they  can  remember  about  this  animal.  At  first, 
any  pupil  that  can  think  of  anything  to  say  may  raise  a  hand, 
and  the  teacher  proceed  to  call  upon  them,  one  at  a  time,  to  say 
what  they  remember,  care  being  taken  to  have  as  little  as  possible 
repeated.  Subsequently  the  pupils  may  be  called  upon  in  turn, 
and  more  system  be  required  in  the  order  of  stating  the  facts. 

Afterward  they  should  be  directed  to  write  all  they  can  re- 
member about  the  camel,  and  state  what  group  of  animals  it  be- 
longs to. 

In  this  connection  the  attention  of  the  pupils  may  be  directed 
to  the  form  and  habits  of  the  Giraffe,  also  to  those  cud-chewing 
animals  found  in  South  America — the  Llama  and  the  Guanaco — 
which  belong  to  the  hornless  ruminants. 


214  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


THE   DRAGON-FLY. 

Introduction  by  the  Teacher. — Most  children  are  very  much 
frightened  when  they  see  a  large  insect  flying  about  which  they  call 
a  "  darning-needle,"  or  the  "  devil's  darning-needle."  They  think  it 
can  sting  or  bite  them,  or  get  in  their  ears.  Some  older  persons 
have  a  dread  of  it ;  so  that  it  has  many  enemies,  and  but  few  friends. 
Now,  before  looking  at  this  insect  or  its  picture,  and  before  talking 
about  its  habits  and  life,  let  me  assure  you  that  there  is  no  cause 
either  of  fear  or  dislike  for  this  harmless  creature,  which  is  really 
very  useful  to  us  in  destroying  mosquitoes  and  flies.  It  cannot  bite, 
or  sting,  or  poison,  or  do  any  injury  to  any  person.  It  is  just  as 
harmless  as  a  butterfly.  When  you  have  learned  more  about  this 
insect,  you  will  understand  how  useless  are  the  fears  which  children 
have  of  it ;  and  I  hope  you  will  learn  also  to  welcome  its  restless, 
rapid  movements  in  pursuit  of  mosquitoes  and  flies,  through  gar- 
dens, over  ponds,  and  even  in  the  house,  rather  than  scream  and  run 
away  from  it.  Now  let  us  examine  this  dragon-fly — that  is  the  real 
name  of  this  insect.  What  can  you  say  about  it  ? 

Children.  It  has  four  wings.  It  has  a  long,  slender  body.  The 
shape  of  the  body  is  cylindrical.  It  has  a  large  head.  Its  wings  are 
oblong.  They  are  very  thin,  and  almost  transparent.  The  wings 
look  something  like  net-work.  It  has  ten  rings  around  its  body. 
It  has  six  legs.  It  has  two  large  eyes.  It  has  two  feelers. 

Teacher.  Very  well  said.  See  its  great  head,  large  eyes,  short  neck, 
its  hunch-back,  and  long,  slender  body,  its  gauze-like  wings,  and  its 
beautiful  colors  !  I  told  you  that  it  is  useful  to  us  in  destroying 
mosquitoes.  It  catches  them  with  its  feet  while  flying,  and  devours 
them.  If  a  few  dragon-flics  were  shut  up  in  a  room  for  a  short  time, 
they  would  effectually  rid  it  of  all  mosquitoes  and  flies. 

Eggs  of  the  Dragon-fly. — The  dragon-fly  alights  upon  stems  of 
rushes  or  other  water-plants,  and  deposits  its  eggs  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  frequently  attaching  them  in  a  bunch  to  a  stem  or  leaf. 
These  eggs  are  hatched  during  the  warm  weather  of  summer  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun. 

The  Larva  or  Grub. — At  first  the  larva  or  grub  of  the  dragon-fly 
resembles  a  bug,  with  large  eyes  and  six  long  legs.  In  this  state  it 
is  very  active,  walking  over  the  bottom  of  the  pond  of  water  it  in- 
habits, or  swimming  in  search  of  the  larva  of  mosquitoes  and  other 
insects,  of  which  it  devours  great  numbers.  It  thus  aids  in  dimin- 
ishing and  removing  from  ponds  and  swamps,  and  also  from  our 
fields,  gardens,  and  houses  even,  swarms  of  blood-sucking  insects. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  215 

The  Pupa. — When  the  larva  has  outgrown  its  skin,  this  splits 
open  at  the  back,  and  the  insect  crawls  out,  thus  changing  from 
the  larva  to  the  pupa  state.  It  still  continues  to  live  in  the  water, 
remaining  there  in  all  some  ten  or  twelve  months.  As  before,  its 
food  is  chiefly  the  larva  of  mosquitoes. 

The  Dragon-fly. — When  the  pupa  has  grown  too  large  for  its 
skin,  and  is  about  to  change  into  the  full -formed  dragon-fly,  it 
climbs  up  the  stern  of  some  plant  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 
While  it  remains  there,  its  skin  again  splits  open  at  the  back,  and 
the  dragon-fly  emerges  slowly.  For  an  hour  or  two  it  remains  quiet, 
with  its  soft  wings  motionless.  Soon  the  surface  of  the  body  dries 
and  hardens,  and  at  length  the  full-formed  dragon-fly  expands  its 
wings  and  rises  into  the  air,  henceforth  to  live  in  a  new  world,  al- 
though its  existence  in  this  state  lasts  but  a  few  weeks.  It  is  by  far 
the  most  powerful  flier  among  insects.  It  can  fly  in  all  directions 
with  equal  facility,  forward  and  backward,  and  sidewisc,  to  the  right 
or  left. 

While  it  was  an  inhabitant  of  water,  it  devoured  the  young  of 
mosquitoes ;  now  it  pursues  the  full-grown  mosquito  on  the  wing 
with  relentless  energy.  From  the  moment  of  its  birth  to  the  hour 
of  its  death  it  riots  upon  baneful  insects;  thus  its  whole  life  is  a 
continued  good  to  man.  It  seems  to  have  been  sent  into  the  wrorld 
by  a  kind  Providence  to  prevent  too  great  an  increase  of  those  in- 
sects which  are  most  annoying  to  man. 

Teacher.  Now  I  will  write  on  the  blackboard  the  names  of  the 
parts  of  the  dragon-fly,  and  of  the  shape  of  each ;  also  some  other 
frets.  Then  I  want  you  to  describe  the  dragon-fly,  telling  all  you 
can  remember  about  it. 

THE   DRAGON-FLY. 
Its  Parts.  Sh.ipe.  Facts. 

Body Cylindrical 


Wings Oblong... 

Legs Crooked 


Eyes Oval 

Feelers Carved J 


Its  food  is  mosquitoes  and  flies. 
It  is   useful   to   man,  and  perfectly 
harmless. 


Head Oblon" It  belongs  to  the  insect  tribe. 


Its  body  is  divided  into  three  parts. 


Now  request  the  pupils  to  write  an  account  of  the  dragon-fly. 
Ask  them  to  watch  the  movements  as  it  flies  about  ponds,  gar- 
dens, and  other  places,  in  pursuit  of  food.  Tell  them  also  to 
catch  a  dragon-fly  and  examine  its  wings,  head,  and  body. 


216  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

THE  OSTRICH. 

Introduction  by  the  Teacher. — I  am  now  going  to  talk  with 
you  about  the  largest  bird,  the  tallest  bird,  and  the  swiftest  running 
bird  in  the  world.  But  first  I  will  show  you  a  picture  of  this  re- 
markable bird,  and  you  may  tell  me  all  you  can  about  its  shape  and 
size,  and  its  name,  if  you  know  what  it  is.  Here  is  the  picture. 
[Showing  the  picture  of  an  ostrich.  The  children  should  be  re- 
quired to  answer  singly ;  and  they  might  give  the  following  and 
other  similar  replies :] 

Children.  It  is  an  ostrich.  It  has  a  long,  slender  neck,  and  a  small 
head.  It  has  long  legs.  It  has  only  two  toes  on  each  foot,  and  one 
is  so  much  shorter  than  the  other  that  it  does  not  look  much  like  a 
toe.  It  has  a  large  body.  It  has  short  wings.  Its  colors  are  black 
and  white. 

Teacher.  Ostriches  are  found  in  the  sandy  countries  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  They  are  usually  seen  in  flocks  or  droves.  Frequently  they 
do  great  injury  to  grain  by  entering  the  fields,  and  destroying  the 
ears  so  completely  that  nothing  is  left  but  the  bare  straw. 

I  told  you  that  this  is  the  largest  and  tallest  bird  in  the  world. 
You  may  better  understand  how  large  it  is  when  I  tell  you  that  the 
head  of  the  ostrich  is  as  high  as  your  head  would  be  were  you  sit- 
ting on  the  back  of  a  tall  horse.  It  is  usually  from  seven  to  eight 
feet  in  height.  You  remember  that  I  also  told  you  that  this  is  the 
swiftest  running  bird  in  the  world.  No  other  animal  can  run  so 
fast  as  the  ostrich.  A  fast-running  horse,  you  know,  can  run  a  mile 
in  about  three  minutes ;  yet  a  horse  cannot  overtake  an  ostrich  by 
following  its  track.  No  hunter  on  the  fleetest  horse  could  capture 
this  bird  if  it  should  run  in  a  straight  line ;  but  the  ostrich  always 
runs  in  curves ;  and  as  soon  as  its  course  is  ascertained,  the  hunter 
takes  a  straight  line,  passing  over  a  much  shorter  space,  intercepts 
and  shoots  the  bird  as  it  dashes  past  him.  While  running,  the  os- 
trich uses  its  short  wings  as  oars  to  increase  its  speed.  These  are 
too  small  for  flying.  The  Arabs  hunt  the  ostrich  for  its  beautiful 
plumage.  The  feathers  of  its  tail  and  wings  are  long  and  soft,  and 
are  much  used  as  ornaments  for  ladies'  bonnets.  These  feathers  are 
very  valuable ;  in  their  unprepared  state  they  cost  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  dollars  per  pound.  The  skin  of  the  ostrich  is  very 
thick  and  tough,  and  is  used  for  leather.  Some  warlike  tribes  in 
Africa  use  the  ostrich's  skin  for  shields  and  other  defensive  armor. 
Its  flesh,  which  is  coarse,  and  somewhat  like  that  of  a  tough  turkey, 
is  used  for  food. 

The  eggs  are  considered  a  great  delicacy  by  the  natives.     They 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  217 

cook  them  in  hot  ashes ;  and,  through  a  hole  made  in  the  end  of  the 
shell,  they  stir  the  contents  round  until  the  substance  becomes  thick 
like  an  omelet.  The  weight  of  an  egg  is  about  three  pounds. 

The  nest  of  the  ostrich  is  simply  a  hollow  scratched  in  the  sand, 
in  which  are  deposited  from  twenty  to  thirty  eggs.  Besides  these, 
there  are  several  eggs,  in  separate  small  hollows  in  the  sand,  around 
but  not  far  from  the  nest.  These  eggs  are  intended  as  food  for  the 
young  ostrich  when  first  hatched.  In  the  tropical  regions  the  eggs 
are  buried  in  the  sand,  and  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  but  in 
cooler  climates  the  male  and  female  take  turns  in  sitting  on  the 
eggs.  They  defend  their  young  with  much  courage.  When  hunted 
by  dogs  and  overtaken,  they  will  fight  desperately.  The  ostrich  has 
been  called  the  "  camel-bird." 

You  said  the  ostrich  has  a  long,  slender  neck  and  a  small  head. 
The  neck  and  head  are  covered  with  hairs  instead  of  feathers.  The 
eyes  are  protected  from  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  fine 
sand  of  the  desert  by  a  peculiar  lid,  which  can  be  drawn  down  at 
pleasure. 

Is  the  beak  of  the  ostrich  like  that  of  a  hen  or  that  of  a  goose  ? 

Children.  It  is  most  like  that  of  a  goose  ? 

Teacher.  The  ostrich  is  a  great  eater.  Its  usual  food  embraces 
the  tops  of  shrubby  plants,  grains,  seeds,  etc. ;  but  it  will  swallow 
greedily  rags,  leather,  wood,  stone,  nails,  keys,  or  pieces  of  money. 

The  Ostrich  Family. — Besides  the  African  Ostrich,  there  are  four 
other  kinds  of  large,  running  birds.  All  of  these  are  remarkable 
for  the  great  size  of  their  bodies;  their  long,  slender  necks;  their  long 
and  strong  legs;  their  very  short  wings;  their  great  speed.  They  are 
called  the  American  Ostrich,  or  Rhea;  the  Cassowary;  the  Emeu;  the 
Apteryx. 

The  American  Ostrich. — The  American  ostrich,  or  rhea,  is  found 
in  Brazil,  South  America.  It  is  much  smaller  than  the  African  os- 
trich ;  has  three  toes  on  each  foot,  all  furnished  with  claws.  It  is 
of  a  gray  color.  Its  feathers  are  of  but  little  value. 

The  Cassowary  is  found  in  the  large  islands  of  the  south-eastern 
part  of  Asia.  It  is  about  five  feet  in  height ;  has  three  toes  on  each 
foot,  provided  with  nails.  Its  covering  or  feathers  resembles  the 
hair  of  a  horse's  mane.  The  head  is  armed  with  a  kind  of  helmet, 
composed  of  a  horny  substance.  In  running,  it  can  outstrip  the 
swiftest  greyhound.  Like  the  African  ostrich,  it  will  swallow  almost 
anything  that  is  offered  to  it  which  is  not  too  large  to  pass  down 
its  throat.  The  color  of  the  eyes  is  a  bright  yellow.  It  defends 

10 


218  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

itself  by  kicking  like  a  horse,  or  running  forcibly  against  its  enemy, 
knocking  it  down,  and  treading  it  under  foot. 

The  Emeu. — The  emeu  is  found  in  Australia.  It  is  from  five  to 
seven  feet  in  height.  It  is  very  much  like  the  African  ostrich  in 
form  and  habits,  but  differs  much  from  it  in  other  respects.  It  is 
exceedingly  shy,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  within  gunshot  of 
one.  The  covering  of  the  body,  instead  of  being  soft,  beautiful 
feathers  like  those  of  the  ostrich,  resembles  thin  strips  of  whale- 
bone, or  coarse,  long  hair.  Its  food  consists  of  fruit,  roots,  and 
herbage.  Its  eggs,  like  those  of  the  ostrich,  are  used  for  food  by 
the  natives.  The  male  bird  site  on  the  eggs,  hatches  the  young,  and 
takes  the  chief  care  of  them. 

The  Apteryx. — The  apteryx  is  an  inhabitant  of  New  Zealand. 
It  is  about  two  feet  in  height,  and  of  a  dark-brown  color.  It  runs 
with  great  rapidity  when  pursued,  and  takes  refuge  in  the  holes  of 
rocks  or  among  the  roots  of  trees.  Its  bill  is  very  long.  It  drives 
this  into  the  soil  to  gather  earth-worms,  which  constitute  its  prin- 
cipal food.  This  bird  lives  in  pairs,  constructs  a  rough  nest,  and 
lays  a  single  egg  about  the  size  of  that  of  a  goose.  The  flesh  is 
esteemed  by  the  New  Zealanders,  and  they  use  its  skin  and  feathers 
for  cloaks. 

All  of  these  birds  belong  to  the  Cursores,  or  short-winged,  run- 
ning birds. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  219 


NOTES  FOR  LESSONS  IN  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

'To  insure  success  with  lessons  in  natural  history,  and 
prepare  pupils  for  understanding  classifications,  the  teach- 
er must  be  able  to  guide  them  so  that  they  shall  observe 
those  distinctive  and  important  characteristics  of  animals 
by  which  the  classification  is  determined.  Facts  that  are 
commonly  needed  by  teachers  for  this  purpose  are  not 
readily  accessible  to  them ;  and  the  purpose  of  these 
Notes  for  Lessons  is  to  add  to  the  previous  lessons  a  suf- 
ficient variety  of  such  distinguishing  facts  about  other 
animals  as  will  enable  any  good  teacher  to  conduct  a  se- 
ries of  lessons  on  this  subject  with  profit  to  the  pupils. 

In  the  following  notes  may  be  found  most  of  those 
characteristics  that  distinguish  the  animals  mentioned, 
and  indicate  the  class  to  which  each  belongs.  The  com- 
mon descriptions  of  animals  and  interesting  stories  con- 
cerning them  may  be  easily  obtained,  by  both  teacher  and 
pupils,  from  the  books  on  natural  history  within  their 
reach ;  and  to  some  extent  from  the  reading  books  used 
in  school.  It  is  intended  that  the  pupils  and  teacher 
shall  obtain  such  information  from  books,  in  addition  to 
what  they  may  gather  from  personal  observation,  and 
each  contribute  something  of  interest  concerning  the  an- 
imal that  is  made  the  subject  of  a  lesson ;  also  that  the 
facts  stated  in  these  notes  shall  be  incorporated  with  the 
information  thus  gathered,  and  the  lessons  thereby  made 
complete. 

The  most  important  distinguishing  facts,  together  wTith 
much  interesting  information  relating  to  the  habits  and 
structure  of  the  several  animals  belonging  to  the  groups 


220  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

known  as  swimming  birds ;  wading  birds ;  scratching 
birds;  birds  of  prey  ;  cat  family  ;  cow  family,  or  hollow- 
horned  ruminants ;  deer  family,  or  solid  -  horned  rumi- 
nants; camel  family,  or  hornless  ruminants;  squirrel 
family,  or  rodents ;  and  weasel  family,  fur  producers — 
may  be  obtained,  for  notes  of  lessons,  from  Prang's  Nat- 
ural History  Series  for  Children*  and  from  the  Manual 
for  Prang's  Natural  History  Series  for  Schools,^  which 
embrace  descriptions  and  illustrative  colored  pictures  of 
more  than  one  hundred  animals. 

The  teacher  will  also  find  important  facts  to  aid  in  giv- 
ing these  lessons  in  an  article  following  this,  on  "  Classi- 
fication of  Animals,"  page  229.  The  facts  given  there 
will  show  the  relations  of  different  animals  to  each  other, 
and  the  classes  to  which  they  belong,  thus  supplementing 
these  notes. 

As  a  useful  closing  exercise  for  the  lessons  on  an  ani- 
mal, request  the  pupils  to  write  the  most  important  facts 
relating  to  that  animal,  give  its  classification,  and  mention 
its  chief  uses,  or  add  a  short  story  about  it.  Let  these 
summaries  of  the  lessons  be  read  before  the  class,  and 
corrections  made  by  the  pupils  under  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher,  thus  combining,  with  the  knowledge  of  natural 
history,  practical  instruction  in  language  and  composition. 

THE  HORSE. 

The  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  single-hoofed  quadrupeds 
is  the  horse.  It  has  a  long  head,  long  neck,  small  pointed  ears, 
loose  mane,  long,  hairy  tail,  legs  long  and  slender,  and  is  adapted 
to  speed.  It  belongs  to  the  class,  mammals ;  order,  hoofed-quad- 
rupeds ;  family,  horse.  It  feeds  on  grass  and  grains ;  is  very 
scrupulous  in  the  choice  of  its  food ;  does  not  chew  its  food  a 

*  Prepared  by  N.  A.  Calkins  and  Mrs.  A.  M.  Diaz. 

t  Prepared  by  N.  A.  Calkins.  Published  by  Messrs.  L.  Prang  &  Co.,  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  221 

second  time.  The  horse  gets  up  on  its  forefeet  first.  It  is 
found  in  all  countries ;  forms  a  strong  attachment  to  other  horses 
and  to  man ;  its  uses  are  well  known. 

The  Pony  is  a  very  small  horse,  and  is  a  native  of  the  Shet- 
land Islands. 

Request  the  pupils  to  give  the  names  and  uses  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  horses. 

THE  ELEPHANT. 

The  elephant  belongs  to  a  group  of  thick-skinned  animals.  It 
is  a  quadruped ;  a  native  of  Asia,  also  of  Africa.  The  Asiatic 
Elephant  has  a  long  head,  concave  forehead,  small  ears,  and  short 
tusks  ;  the  African  Elephant  has  a  round  head,  convex  forehead, 
large  ears,  and  long  tusks. 

The  skin  of  the  elephant  is  very  thick,  rough,  and  nearly  naked  ; 
the  body  is  very  large  and  heavy,  being  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
long,  and  seven  to  eight  feet  high ;  neck  short  and  stout ;  head 
large;  eyes  small;  has  two  tusks  projecting  from  the  sides  of 
the  mouth ;  has  a  very  large  and  long  nose,  called  a  trunk  or 
proboscis.  This  is  an  organ  of  smell,  of  touch,  of  feeling,  and  a 
weapon  of  defence.  It  can  pick  up  very  small  articles  of  food 
with  the  finger  at  the  end  of  the  trunk,  and  place  them  in  its 
mouth.  It  can  draw  up  water  with  its  trunk,  and  pour  it  into 
its  mouth  or  throw  it  over  its  body.  The  Asiatic  elephant  may 
be  tamed,  and  made  useful  in  many  ways.  The  African  elephant 
cannot  be  easily  domesticated. 

Let  the  pupils  relate  or  write  interesting  stories  about 
elephants,  their  tricks,  uses,  etc. 

THE  RHINOCEROS. 

This  animal  belongs  also  to  the  thick-skinned  quadrupeds  ,*  in- 
deed, its  skin  is  naked,  and  so  thick  and  hard  that  it  will  resist 
an  ordinary  lead  bullet  when  fired  from  a  rifle.  The  skin  of  the 
Asiatic  Rhinoceros  is  so  stiff  that  folds  or  plaits  are  necessary 


222  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

near  the  principal  joints  of  the  body  to  allow  the  animal  to  move 
its  limbs  freely. 

The  rhinoceros  is  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  from  five 
to  seven  feet  in  height.  Its  upper  lip  is  long  and  pointed,  and 
is  used  in  picking  up  its  food.  It  feeds  on  grass,  branches  of 
trees,  and  other  vegetable  substances.  It  lives  in  shady  forests 
on  the  marshy  borders  of  rivers  and  lakes.  It  has  a  horn  on  its 
nose,  composed  of  horny  fibres,  like  coarse  hair.  This  grows  from 
the  skin  of  the  nose,  and  is  not  attached  to  the  bone  of  the  head. 
This  horn  is  sometimes  three  feet  in  length,  and  is  a  powerful 
weapon  of  defence. 

The  African  Rhinoceros  has  two  horns  on  its  nose — one  short- 
er than  the  other;  and  its  skin  is  comparatively  smooth,  and 
without  the  heavy  folds  found  on  those  of  Asia. 

This  animal  moves  about  most  after  sunset,  and  spends  the  day 
in  sleep.  It  wallows  in  the  mire  to  protect  itself  from  bites  of 
troublesome  insects  that  get  under  the  folds  of  its  skin. 

THE  PIG. 

This  well-known  quadruped  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  has  cloven  hoofs,  but  does  not  chew  its  cud;  eats  vegetables, 
roots,  grains,  and  flesh ;  is  greedy  and  filthy  in  its  habits ;  has  a 
tapering,  pointed  head,  with  nostrils  at  the  end  of  its  snout ;  has 
a  flexible  rim  at  the  end  of  its  nose  or  snout,  suitable  for  rooting 
up  the  ground,  which  it  does  in  search  of  food.  Its  flesh  is  called 
pork,  bacon,  ham,  and  is  used  for  food ;  its  fat  is  called  lard,  and 
is  used  for  cooking.  The  pig  is  covered  with  coarse  bristles ;  its 
skin  is  thick,  and  is  made  into  leather,  from  which  saddles  are 
made. 

THE  PORCUPINE. 

A  quadruped,  about  two  feet  long,  that  feeds  on  leaves,  bark, 
corn,  fruit,  and  other  vegetables ;  head  thick ;  eyes  small ;  muzzle 
blunt ;  belongs  to  the  family  of  gnawers ;  burrows  in  stony  soil ; 
limbs  short  and  strong ;  feet  have  thick,  strong  nails,  adapted  to 
digging ;  tongue  rough ;  skin  covered  with  spines  or  quills,  from 


LESSONS  ON  ANIMALS.  223 

one  to  four  inches  long* ;  when  irritated,  it  erects  these  spines  as1 
an  armor  of  defence ;  it  usually  remains  in  its  burrow  during  the 
daytime,  and  comes  out  for  food  at  night ;  it  sleeps  during  cold 
weather.  The  crested  porcupine  of  the  Old  World  has  spines,  or 
quills,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  about  the  size  of  a 
goose-quill. 

THE  RAT. 

Show  picture  of  rat  and  mouse.  Let  pupils  mention 
their  resemblances;  observe  that  both  are  gnawing  ani- 
mals; that  they  are  timid,  but  defend  themselves  by  biting 
when  unable  to  escape  by  running  away.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  nuts,  grains,  and  other  vegetable  food ;  eat  flesh 
when  forced  by  hunger;  live  in  holes  about  dwellings, 
barns,  etc. ;  sit  on  hind  feet,  and  hold  food  in  front  paws 
when  eating ;  have  chisel-shaped  teeth  ;  long  tails,  without 
hair ;  some  kinds  live  in  banks  of  streams,  where  they 
feed  chiefly  on  roots. 

The  rat  is  a  mammal ;  belongs  to  the  group  of  rodents ;  family, 
rats ;  is  noted  for  its  burrowing  habits ;  will  make  its  way  by 
digging  and  gnawing  through  almost  any  substance,  except  stone 
and  hard  metals.  It  lives  in  colonies ;  is  very  destructive,  and 
difficult  to  destroy.  It  avoids  pine  tar;  hence  paper  on  which 
a  thick  coating  of  pine  tar  is  spread,  placed  over  a  rat-hole,  will 
keep  the  rat  from  entering  the  hole  as  long  as  the  tar  remains 
fresh.  The  Norway,  or  common  brown  rat,  finds  its  way  to  every 
part  of  the  world  where  man  makes  his  habitation. 

THE  SEA-LION. 

This  animal  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Ocean;  it  is  a  mammal,  amphibious  and  carnivorous,  and  be- 
longs to  the  family  of  eared-seals.  It  is  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
long;  weighs  from  1000  to  1800  pounds;  color  light  brown;  shape 
of  head  somewhat  like  that  of  a  dog ;  voice  loud,  with  repeating 
sounds  resembling  the  rapid  baying  of  a  hound.  It  moves  awk- 


224  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

wardly  on  land ;  has  fin-like  feet,  adapted  to  swimming ;   feeds 
chiefly  on  fish. 

The  three  families — common  seal,  sea-bear  or  fur-seal,  and  wal- 
rus— belong  to  the  same  order. 


THE  WHALE. 

This  is  the  largest  of  living  creatures,  being  from  fifty  to  seventy 
feet  long,  and  more  than  thirty  feet  around  its  body.  It  is  not  a 
fish,  although  it  lives  in  the  water  and  swims  like  a  fish.  It  can- 
not breathe  under  water,  and  would  drown  if  it  could  not  come 
to  the  surface  to  get  air.  The  whale  breathes  by  lungs,  through 
nostrils  which  are  situated  at  or  near  the  top  of  the  head.  These 
nostrils  generally  unite  in  a  single  opening  at  the  surface,  called 
the  "  blow-hole,"  which  may  be  closed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  an- 
imal, so  as  to  keep  out  the  water  as  the  whale  dives  below  the 
surface. 

The  whale  can  remain  under  water  for  a  long  time  without 
breathing ;  but  it  usually  returns  to  the  surface  in  ten  or  twenty 
minutes,  when  it  blows  a  column  of  spray  from  its  nostrils  several 
times,  in  alternation  with  inhaling  fresh  supplies  of  air,  and  then 
disappears  again.  Whales  have  warm  blood,  smooth  skin,  be- 
neath which  there  is  a  layer  of  fat,  called  "  blubber,"  from  ten  to 
twenty  inches  thick.  This  substance  is  elastic,  and,  being  lighter 
than  water,  it  contributes  to  the  buoyancy  of  these  great  animals. 
The  body  of  a  dead  whale  will  float  while  the  blubber  remains  on 
it,  but  when  this  is  stripped  off  the  carcass  sinks.  Sometimes 
from  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  blubber  are  taken  from  a  single 
whale,  and  from  which  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
barrels  of  oil  are  obtained. 

Whales  belong  to  the  class  mammalia;  order,  cetacea.  The 
right-whales  are  found  chiefly  in  the  waters  of  the  far-Northern 
and  far-Southern  oceans.  The  sperm-whales  are  found  in  warmer 
regions  of  the  ocean.  The  kinds  that  are  most  valuable  are  the 
Sperm-whale,  and  the  Right  or  Greenland  Whale.  The  sperm- 
whale  has  teeth,  and  feeds  on  small  fish,  squids,  or  cuttle-fish. 
The  Greenland  whale  has  no  teeth ;  but  from  the  sides  of  its  up- 


LESSONS  ON  AXIMALS.  225 

per  jaw  are  suspended  layers  of  whalebone  [see  pages  155,  156], 
which  enable  this  animal,  as  it  swims  back  and  forth  through 
shoals  of  shrimps,  small  crabs  and  mollusks,  and  other  minute 
marine  animals,  scooping  them  up  with  its  immense  mouth,  to 
strain  out  the  water  and  retain  its  food.  The  head  of  this  whale 
is  about  one-third  the  entire  length  of  the  animal. 

The  young  whale  is  called  a  calf.  The  mother  takes  great  care 
of  it,  sometimes  carrying  it  on  her  tail  as  she  swims.  She  re- 
mains near  it  when  in  danger,  and  will  even  lose  her  own  life  in 
its  defence. 

Whales,  dolphins,  porpoises,  and  narwhals  belong  to  the  same 
order  of  animals. 


THE  WOODPECKER. 

This  bird  is  commonly  classed  with  the  climbing  birds,  because 
two  of  its  toes  are  turned  forward  and  two  backward,  and  its 
habit  of  climbing  on  the  trunks  of  old  trees.  It  is  included  in 
the  order  Picarice,  and  family  piddce,  or  woodpeckers.  The  red- 
headed woodpecker  has  a  back  of  glossy  blue-black ;  head,  neck, 
and  breast  of  crimson ;  under  parts,  pure  white.  Length  is  about 
nine  inches  ;  extent  of  wings  about  seventeen  inches ;  bill  strong 
and  sharp-pointed ;  tongue  long,  sharp,  armed  near  the  point  with 
a  barb,  and  may  be  extended  several  inches  beyond  the  bill.  This 
bird  moves  about  the  tree,  in  climbing,  with  its  head  upward. 
It  taps  on  the  bark  of  the  tree  to  find  the  location  of  an  insect ; 
then  cuts  a  hole  through  the  bark  to  the  grub,  and  thrusts  the 
barbed  tongue  into  the  grub,  and  then  pulls  it  into  its  mouth. 
The  number  of  insects  and  larvaB  which  these  birds  thus  destroy 
is  incalculable ;  and  thereby  they  do  great  good.  Their  boring 
does  not  injure  the  trees  as  much  as  the  presence  of  the  insect 
does  when  it  is  left  to  hatch  out. 

The  woodpecker  builds  its  nest  in  holes  which  it  makes  in  dead 
trees.  These  holes  are  often  excavated  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  below  the  opening.  This  bird  has  great  force  in  its  neck 
and  head.  The  eggs  are  nearly  round,  and  of  a  pure  white. 

10* 


226  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

THE  CUCKOO. 

The  yellow-billed  cuckoo  belongs  to  the  order  Picarice,  and 
family  cuckoo.  The  members  of  this  family  feed  on  insects,  and 
are  distinguished  by  their  cry,  which  is  most  frequently  heard  be^ 
fore  a  rain ;  hence  the  cuckoo  is  sometimes  called  the  "  rain-crow." 
This  American  bird  builds  its  rude  nest  of  twigs  in  the  fork 
of  a  tree,  and  hatches  its  own  young.  The  European  Cuckoo 
does  not  build  a  nest ;  it  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  these  foster-parents.  It  is 
common  for  the  young  cuckoo  thus  hatched  to  crowd  the  young 
of  the  other  bird  out  of  the  nest,  thus  obtaining  more  room,  and 
all  the  food. 

THE  WHIPPOORWILL. 

This  bird  belongs  to  the  order  Picarice ;  family,  night-jars, 
and  the  group  of  screeching  birds.  It  is  well-known  by  its  loud, 
whistling  cry  of  "  whip-poor-will ;"  but  it  is  seldom  seen,  as  it  is 
nocturnal  in  its  habits.  It  sleeps  in  the  daytime  on  a  fallen  trunk 
of  a  tree,  or  on  a  low  branch,  and  sits,  while  sleeping,  with  its 
body  parallel  to  the  trunk  or  limb,  instead  of  crosswise  on  the 
branch,  as  birds  usually  sit.  Its  strange  notes  are  heard  during 
the  evening.  It  feeds  on  insects,  which  it  catches  during  the 
evening  twilight. 

It  has  a  wide  mouth,  which  is  fringed  with  stiff  bristles,  and 
moistened  with  a  glutinous  substance ;  these  aid  in  catching  the 
insects.  The  length  of  this  bird  is  about  ten  inches ;  the  wings, 
when  extended,  are  about  nineteen  inches. 

THE  KINGBIRD. 

The  kingbird  is  about  eight  inches  long,  of  a  dark  ash  color 
on  the  back,  white  underneath,  and  tail  tipped  with  white.  This 
well-known  bird,  also  the  crested  flycatcher  and  the  phoebe-bird, 
belong  to  that  group  of  perchers  called  singing  birds,  but  whose 
voices  are  harsh.  They  all  belong  to  the  family  of  tyrants,  be- 
cause of  their  bold  and  cruel  habits. 

They  are  rapid  in  flight,  have  bills  adapted  to  catching  winged 


LESSONS  ON   ANIMALS.  227 

insects,  and  they  live  entirely  upon  insect  food.  They  usually 
perch  on  some  prominent  place,  wait  for  a  passing  insect,  toward 
which  they  dart  suddenly,  seize  and  swallow  it,  and  return  to  their 
waiting-place. 

The  Kingbird  destroys  thousands  of  injurious  insects  for  every 
honey-bee  that  it  kills.  It  will  attack  hawks,  crows,  and  even  ea- 
gles, and  drive  them  away,  during  its  breeding  season  in  May  and 
June. 

The  Great  Crested  Flycatcher  is  somewhat  larger  than  the 
kingbird.  It  feeds  on  insects,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
kingbird.  It  has  a  loud,  harsh  voice,  and  quarrelsome  habits. 
Its  color  is  olive-brown  on  the  back,  yellow  on  the  under  parts. 
It  sometimes  uses  cast-off  snake  skins  in  building  its  nest. 

The  Phoebe-bird,  or  Fewee,  is  also  a  flycatcher.  Its  color  is 
an  olive-brown  above,  yellowish  on  the  under  parts.  Its  voice  is 
soft  and  somewhat  drawling,  and  its  notes  sound  like  "  phe-be," 
or  "  pe-wee ;"  hence  its  name. 

THE  SPARROWS. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  sparrows,  all  of  which  belong  to  the 
group  ofperchers  known  as  singing  birds.  They  are  classed  with 
the  family  of  finches,  which  is  the  largest  family  known  in  Amer- 
ica. It  includes  about  one-eighth  of  all  our  birds,  and  numbers 
about  five  hundred  species.  The  size  and  general  appearance  of 
these  birds  are  well  known.  Their  chief  food  is  insects,  and  they 
are  of  great  service  in  destroying  vast  numbers  of  these  enemies 
to  vegetation. 

The  Song  Sparrow — a  well-known  and  pleasing  songster — is 
one  of  the  harbingers  of  spring.  It  builds  its  nest  in  a  low  shrub, 
and  feeds  upon  insects.  It  is  about  six  inches  in  length. 

The  Chipping  Sparrow,  or  chip-bird,  builds  its  nest  on  very 
low  bushes,  or  in  a  bunch  of  grass.  Its  nest  is  made  of  fine,  dry 
grass,  and  lined  with  cow  hair.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  num- 
ber, greenish-blue  and  speckled.  It  feeds  on  insects.  This  bird 
is  familiar  in  the  fields  and  gardens. 


228  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The  English  Sparrow,  which  was  imported  to  this  country  a 
few  years  ago  from  England,  has  become  naturalized  in  large  cit- 
ies and  towns,  where  it  has  proved  very  beneficial  in  destroying 
the  canker-worm  that  infests  our  shade  trees.  This  bird  multi- 
plies rapidly  ;  is  very  belligerent ;  remains  all  winter  in  our  cities. 
Fears  are  entertained  that  this  sparrow  will  drive  away  many  of 
our  native  birds. 

The  Snow-bird  belongs  to  the  order  of  perchers,  family  of 
finches,  genus  Junco.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  sparrow,  but 
it  belongs  to  a  different  genus.  It  is  common  in  the  United 
States  from  October  to  April,  but  spends  its  summer  far  to  the 
north,  among  mountains,  where  it  raises  its  young. 

The  Snow-bunting  has  a  lighter  plumage  than  the  snow-bird. 
It  spends  the  summer  in  the  northern  parts  of  North  America, 
and  visits  the  United  States  in  flocks  during  winter. 

Other  Lessons. — Similar  lessons  may  be  given  on  oth- 
er classes  of  animals,  embracing  insects,  fish,  reptiles,  etc. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  229 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS. 

CLASSIFICATION  changes  facts  into  knowledge.  Facts 
become  useful  when  their  relations  are  discovered,  and 
they  are  associated  in  groups  according  to  their  rela- 
tions. The  ability  to  group  kindred  facts  together,  so 
that  the  result  shall  be  practical  knowledge,  comes  from 
proper  experience  in  distinguishing  similar  forms,  quali- 
ties, conditions,  and  relations  in  several  objects.  The  an- 
imal world  supplies  the  young  with  abundance  of  objects 
and  conditions  for  gaining  ability  to  learn  the  relations 
existing  between  facts,  and  to  group  and  classify  them. 
This  field  is  one  of  great  importance  to  the  teacher,  and 
of  lasting  value  to  the  pupil ;  but,  unfortunately,  its  prac- 
tical utility  as  an  educational  means  is  too  little  under- 
stood. The  following  classifications  are  designed  to  aid  in 
bringing  this  subject,  in  its  relation  to  animals,  within  the 
reach  of  every  teacher. 

It  often  happens  that  a  teacher  wishes  to  know  in  what 
branch,  class,  order,  family,  or  group  of  animals  a  given 
one  belongs,  when  the  works  on  natural  history  necessary 
to  give  the  desired  information  are  not  within  reach.  At 
such  times  the  following  classified  lists  of  animals,  giving 
the  prominent  characteristics  of  each  branch,  class,  order, 
group,  family,  etc.,  will  be  found  exceedingly  helpful  to 
teachers  (who  are  not  expected  to  be  as  well  informed 
on  these  matters  as  a  professor  of  natural  history).  The 
teacher  will  be  able,  by  an  intelligent  examination  of  these 
lists,  to  avoid  many  mistakes  in  giving  lessons  on  animals ; 
and  the  pupils  will  be  saved  from  false  impressions  in  re- 
lation to  them.  But  let  it  be  distinctly  understood,  how- 
ever, that  this  classification  of  animals  is  given  here  espe- 


230 


MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


cially/br  the  personal  use  of  teachers,  and  not  as  lessons 
for  young  pupils  to  learn,  although  the  facts  contained 
herein  may  be  used  in  their  appropriate  connection  in 
lessons  about  animals.* 

Animals  are  divided  into  branches.  The  branches  are 
divided  into  classes.  The  classes  are  divided  into  or- 
ders. The  orders  are  divided  into  families.  The  fami- 
lies are  divided  into  genera.  The  genera  are  divided  into 
species.  A  species  is  composed  of  individuals  that  are 
essentially  alike. 

BRANCHES. 

Animals  may  be  divided  into  Jive  branches  : 

C      Animals  that  have  a  backbone,  or  an  in- 
I.  VERTEBRATA  .  <  ternal  bony  framework,  as  man,  -horse,  cat, 

I  birds,  snake,  alligator,  frog,  fish. 

Animals  the  bodies  of  which  are  com- 
posed of  segments  or  rings,  placed  one  be- 
hind the  other  in  a  symmetrical,  jointed 
form,  as  ants,  flies,  spiders,  grasshoppers, 
lobsters,  centipedes,  bugs. 

C      Animals  that  have  soft,  sack-like  bodies, 
III.  MOLLUSCA.  .  .  <  without  joints   or   bones,  as   snails,  slugs, 

I  oysters,  cuttle-fish,  squid. 

C      Animals  that  have  parts  of  their  bodies 

J  arranged  around,  or  radiating  from  a  cen- 

I  tre,  as  star-fish,  coral,  jelly-fish,  sea-urchins, 

L  sea-slugs,  sea-lily,  sea-fan. 

f  Animals  whose  bodies  consist  mainly  of 
gelatinous  matter,  without  muscles,  nerves, 
or  digestive  organs,  yet  take  and  assimilate 

|  food,  grow  and  multiply.  They  belong  to  the 

L  lowest  verge  of  animals,  as  sponges,  infusoria. 


II.  ARTICULATA 


IV.  RADIATA 


V.  PROTOZOA 


*  For  further  facts  about  families  and  individual  animals,  and  for  addi- 
tional information  as  to  the  manner  of  giving  lessons  on  this  subjeet,  teach- 
ers are  referred  to  the  Manual  for  Prang's  Natural  History  Series,  published 
by  L.  Prang  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. ;  also  to  Comparative  Zoology,  by  James 
Ortoo,  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


231 


I.  MAMMALIA 


CLASSES— VERTEBRATES. 

The  branch  I.  VERTEBRATA  is  divided  into  five  classes,  as  fol- 
lows : 

Animals  that  have  breathing  organs 
in  the  form  of  lungs ;  blood,  warm  ; 
heart,  four  cavities ;  young  produced 
alive,  and  nursed  by  the  mother ;  skin 
usually  has  hair,  either  on  a  part  or  the 
whole  of  the  body,  as  man,  monkey,  bat, 
quadrupeds,  whale,  sea-lion,  dugong. 
(  Animals  that  have  breathing  organs 
j  in  the  form  of  lungs,  but  connected 

II.  AVES  (BIRDS).  .  .  <{  with  other  air  receptacles;  blood,  warm  ; 
heart,  four  cavities ;  young  hatched  from 
I  eggs ;  skin  covered  with  feathers. 

Animals  with  breathing  organs  in  the 
form  of  lungs;  never  breathe  by  gills; 
blood,  cold ;  heart,  usually  three  cavities ; 
young  usually  produced  from  eggs ;  skin 
covered  with  scales  or  plates,  as  alli- 
gator,  turtle,  lizard,  snake. 

Animals  with  breathing  organs,  in  the 
young,  in  the  form  of  gills  only,  but  in 
the  full-formed  animal  in  the  form  of 
lungs  alone,  or  of  lungs  and  gills;  blood, 
cold ;  heart,  in  young,  two  cavities ;  in 
adult,  three  cavities ;  young  produced 
from  eggs ;  skin  usually  naked  and 
smooth,  as  frog,  toad,  tadpole,  salaman- 
der, newt,  siredon. 

Animals  that  have  breathing  organs 
in  the  form  of  gills ;  blood,  cold ;  heart, 
usually  two  cavities;  young  produced 
from  eggs ;  body  generally  covered  with 
scales,  sometimes  naked,  as  with  eels. 


III.  REPTILIA 


IV.  AMPHIBIA 


V.  PISCES  (FISHES) 


232 


MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


The 
classes 


I.  INSECTA 


II.  MYRIAPODA 


IV.  CRUSTACEA 


CLASSES— ARTICULATES. 
branch   II.  ARTICULATA   is    divided    into    the  following 


Animals  whose  bodies  are  divided  into 
three  parts— head,  middle-body  or  thorax, 
hind-body  or  abdomen ;  have  six  legs  attach- 
ed to  the  thorax ;  usually  have  two  or  four 
wings ;  breathe  through  a  row  of  small  open- 
ings on  each  side  of  the  body ;  blood,  color- 
less ;  hatch  from  eggs,  usually  to  a  larva  state, 
in  which  growth  takes  place,  then  changes 
to  the  adult  state,  or  fall-formed  insect,  after 
which  they  do  not  grow,  as  flies,  bees,  moths, 
.  butterflies,  locusts,  dragon-fly,  musquito,  beetle. 

Animals  with  many  feet,  whose  bodies 
are  divided  into  segments  so  similar  that 
the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished ;  they  are  worm-like  in  general  ap- 
pearance ;  breathe  through  air  tubes  in  sides 
of  body,  as  earwig,  centipede,  thousand-legs. 

Animals  whose  bodies  are  divided  into 
two  parts — head-body,  and  abdomen ;  have 
four  pairs  of  legs ;  six  or  eight  eyes ;  no 
wings;  breathe  through  little  tubes  from 
their  sides  connected  with  air  sacks  in  the 
body;  hatch  from  eggs;  change  or  shed 
skin  six  times  as  they  grow  to  maturity, 
.  as  spiders,  scorpions,  ticks,  mites. 

Animals  whose  bodies  are  covered  with 

a    crust    or    shell;    having    jointed    legs; 

breathe  by  gills ;    blood  colorless ;    usually 

live  in  water ;  hatch  from  eggs ;  shed  their 

|  shells  as  they  grow ;  have  power  of  repairing 

themselves  (if  a  leg  be  lost,  a  new  one  grows 

in  its  place),  as  lobsters,  crawfish,  shrimp, 

I  sand-fleas,  barnacles. 


III.  ARACHNIDA 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


233 


V.  ANNELLIDA 


Animals  whose  bodies  are  com- 
posed of  a  succession  of  rings, 
worm  -  like,  without  legs  or  wings ; 
each  ring  usually  contains  a  breath- 
ing and  circulatory  apparatus;  some 
breathe  by  the  skin,  as  earth-worms 
and  leeches ;  some  breathe  by  tuft- 
like  gills,  as  sea -worms.  This  class 
includes  all  real  worms,  earth-worm, 
tape-worm,  trichina,  hair-worm,  leedh, 
.  wheel-animalcule. 


I.  CEPHALOPODA 


CLASSES— MOLLUSKS. 
The  branch  III.  MOLLUSCA  is  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

Soft-bodied  animals  with  a  head,  to 
which  are  attached  eight  or  more  arm- 
like  appendages ;  have  two  prominent 
eyes ;  two  stout,  horny  jaws ;  rasping 
tongue ;  body  naked,  or  protected  by 
a  shell,  as  cuttle -fish,  octopus,  argo- 

^  nauts,  squids. 

Soft -bodied  animals,  unsymmetri- 
cal  in  form ;  organs  not  in  pairs ;  move 
by  one  foot ;  usually  breathe  by  gills 
[land -snails  and  slugs  breathe  by 
lung] ;  two  eyes  on  long,  horn  -  like 
feelers ;  young  hatched  from  eggs,  as 
slugs,  snails,  whelk,  limpet,  sea -slug, 

,  cowry,  cone-shell,  periwinkle. 

Soft-bodied  animals  without  heads; 
breathe  by  four  plate-like  gills ;  shell 
equivalved ;  hinge  of  shell  on  the 
back  of  the  animal,  as  oyster,  clam, 

^  mussel,  cockle,  razor-shell,  scallop. 


II.  GASTEROPODA 


III.  LAMELLIBRANCHITA 


234 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


IV.  BRACHIOPODA  .  . 

Y.    TUNICATA 

VI.    POLYZOA    . 


II.    ECHINOIDEA 


Soft  -  bodied  animals,  with  two   long 

arras  extending  from  the  sides  of  the 

mouth,  by  means  of  which  they  cause 

a  current  of  water,  and  thus  secure  their 

^  food  ;  without  gills ;  all  marine  animals. 

Soft -bodied  animals,  without  head, 
feet,  arms,  or  shell — found  in  seas. 

Minute  animals,  living  in  clusters, 
sometimes  in  a  plant  -  like  form ;  are 
both  marine  and  fresh-water  animals. 


CLASSES— RADIATES. 
The  branch  IV.  RADIATA  is  divided  into  classes,  as  follows: 

f      Worm-like  sea-slugs,  with  soft,  elon- 
I.  HOLOTHUROIDEA  .  -j  gated  body,  tough,  contractile  skin,  with 
(  feathery-like  arms  around  the  mouth. 

A  globular  animal,  encased  in  a  thin 
shell  covered  .with  spines,  that  lives 
near  the  shore,  in  rocky  holes  or  under 
sea-weed,  as  sea-urchin  or  echinus. 

An  animal  with  a  leathery  skeleton, 
covered  with  very  small  plates  of  shell- 
like  substance,  having  five  or  more  arms 
radiating  from  it,  as  star-fishes.  The 
red  spots  at  the  end  of  the  arms  are 
supposed  to  be  eyes.  They  feed  on 
oysters.  Cold  fresh  water  kills  them. 

(Animals  fixed  to  the  sea-bottom,  re- 
sembling somewhat  in  form  the  bud  and 
stem  of  a  water-lily,  as  crinoid  or  sea- 
lily. 

(       Marine  animals,  as  sea-anemone,  coral 
(  polyps,  and  corals  of  various  kinds. 
f      Animals  with   soft,  gelatinous,  semi- 
transparent  bodies,  frequently  of  beauti- 

VI.  HYDROZOA <  £  ,    \         £   .  M.  ,    J    .  77    £  , 

ful  colors  of  claret  or  pink,  as  jelly-fish, 

[  medusa,  Portuguese-man-of-war,  hydra. 


III.    ASTEROIDEA 


IV.  CRINOIDEA 


V.  ANTHOZOA 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


235 


CLASSES— LOWEST  ANIMALS. 
The  branch  V.  PROTOZOA  is  divided  into  classes,  as  follows  : 


I.  SPONGIDA 


II.  INFUSORIA 


III.  KHIZOPODA 


IV.  GREGARINIDA 


The  sponge  is  a  compound  animal,  com- 
posed  of  an  exceedingly   soft,  filmy  sub- 
stance, covering  a  net-work  of  horny  fibres, 
which  this   substance  secretes.      Sponges 
increase  by  sperm-cells. 
(      A  group  of  exceedingly  minute  particles, 
•<  living  in  stagnant  water.     They  multiply 
(  very  rapidly. 

These  animals  have  root -like  filaments 
extending  from  the  main  mass  of  the  body. 
They  are  exceedingly  minute,  yet  secrete 
calcareous  or  siliceous  shells.  These  enter 
largely  into  the  formation  of  chalk  cliffs^ 
.  sand,  etc. 

(      These  are  the  lowest  and  simplest  forms 
J  of  living  animal  substance.     They  are  ex- 
]  ceedingly   minute,  and  are   found  in   the 
earth-worm  and  cockroach. 


236  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


ORDERS   OF   ANIMALS. 
MAMMALS  — ORDERS    OF. 
The  class  I.  MAMMALIA  is  divided  into  orders,  as  follows  : 
I.  BIMANA. — Two-handed,  as  man. 

II.  QUADRUMANA. — Four- handed,  as  monkeys,  apes,  gorilla, 
chimpanzee,  orang-outang,  lemurs,  baboon. 

III.  CARNIVORA. — Flesh  eaters,  as  cats,  lion,  leopard,  panther, 

dogs,  wolf,  fox,  hyena,  bear,  wolverine,  weasel,  skunk,  bad- 
ger, otter,  seal,  sea-lion,  walrus. 

IV.  UNGULATA. — Hoofed  quadrupeds,  as  horse,  zebra,  cow,  sheep, 

goat,  buffalo,  antelope,  gazelle,  deer,  moose,  caribou,  hog, 
peccary,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  elephant,  tapir,  camel, 
llama,  giraffe. 

V.  CHEIROPTERA. — Hand-winged,  as  bats. 
VI.  INSECTIVORA. — Insect  eaters,  as  moles,  hedgehogs,  shrews. 
VII.  RODENTIA. — Gnawing   animals,    as    rats,   mice,   squirrels, 
gophers,  beavers,  guinea-pigs,  porcupines,  woodchucks,  prai- 
rie-dogs. 
VIII.  EDENTATA. — Without  enamelled  teeth:  some  have  no  kind 

of  teeth,  as  ant-eater,  sloth,  armadillo. 
IX.  MARSUPIALS. — Pouched  animals,  as   kangaroo,  opossum, 

wombat. 

X.  SIRENIA. — Fish-like  mammal:  feed  on  herbs;  live  in  great 
rivers  and  warm  parts  of  oceans  near  shores,  as  manatee, 
or  sea-cow,  dugong,  stellers. 

XI.  CETACEA. — Whales:  fish -like  mammals  that  live  in  the 
ocean ;  feed  on  minute  animals  of  the  sea,  as  whale,  dol- 
phin, porpoise,  narwhal. 

Fish-like  mammals  breathe  by  means  of  lungs;  they  are  obliged 
to  come  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  take  air.  Their  broad,  flat 
tails  are  horizontal  to  the  water;  this  position  gives  them  greater  pow- 
er for  rising  to  the  surface. 

Trueflshes  breathe  under  water  by  means  of  gills.  Their  tails  are 
perpendicular  to  the  water,  and  are  the  means  by  which  they  propel 
themselves  and  direct  their  course  in  the  water. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  237 


BIRDS.* 

A  bird  may  be  defined  as  an  air-breathing,  egg-laying, 
warm -flooded,  feathered  vertebrate  j  with  two  legs  for 
perching,  walking,  or  swimming,  and  two  wings  for  fly- 
ing. Birds  may  be  divided  into  three  great  groups,  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  modes  of  life. 

Aerial  Birds  are  those  which  habitually  live  above  the 
earth,  in  the  air,  or  on  trees,  embracing  those  com- 
monly known  as  birds  of  prey,  perchers,  climb- 
ers, as  eagle,  hawk,  thrush,  sparrow,  woodpecker, 
parrot. 

Terrestrial  Birds  are  those  which  habitually  live  on 
the  ground,  and  commonly  known  as  waders, 
scratchers,  and  runners,  as  heron,  crane,  hen,  quail, 
ostrich. 

Aquatic  Birds  are  those  which  habitually  live  on  the 
water,  and  are  commonly  called  swimmers,  as 
duck)  swan,  pelican,  gull,  loon,  penguin. 

BIRDS— ORDERS  OF. 

The  class  AVES  (BIRDS)  is  divided  into  orders,  as  follows  : 

I.  PASSERES. — Perchers:  birds  that  have  feet  with  four  toes 
adapted  to  perching,  including  the  oscines — singing  birds 
— as  thrush,  mocking-bird,  bluebird,  warbler,  catbird,  cross- 
bill, cedar -bird,  starling,  oriole,  blackbird,  lark,  bobolink, 
robin,  chickadee,  wren,  jay,  crow  ;  also  of  the  clamatores 
— birds  that  do  not  sing — as  flycatcher,  kingbird,  barn- 
swallow,  sand-martin,  pewee. 


*  The  Classification  of  Birds  given  here  is  essentially  that  of  Elliot  Coues, 
Sanborn  Teuney,  and  Agassiz. 


238  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

II.  PICARI^E. — A  miscellaneous  assortment :  a  group  of  birds 
that  differ  from  all  other  groups,  yet  do  not  possess  many 
resemblances  to  each  other,  as  kingfisher,  whippoorwill, 
night-hawk,  chimney -swallow,  humming-bird,  cuckoo, 
woodpeckers. 

III.  PSITTACI. — Climbers:  birds  that  have  two  toes  in  front 

and  two  turned  back.  These  birds  commonly  use  the 
bill  in  climbing,  as  the  parrot,  macaw,  cockatoo,  paroquet, 
trogons,  toucans,  barbet. 

IV.  RAPTORES. — Birds  of  prey,  as  eagles,  haivks,  falcons,  kites, 

buzzards,  owls,  vultures,  condor,  turkey-buzzard,  secretary- 
bird. 
V.  COLUMB^E. — Pigeons,  as  doves,  pigeons,  etc. 

VI.  GALLIN^E. — Scratchers,  as   hens,    turkeys,  grouse,  quails, 

prairie-chicken,  peacocks,  guinea-hen. 
VII.  CURSORES,    or    BREVIPENNES.  —  Short  -  winged,   running 

birds,  as  ostrich,  emu,  rhea,  bustard,  apteryx. 
Vin.  GRALLATORES. — Waders:  generally  have  slender  bodies, 
long,  bare  legs,  long  necks,  pointed  bills.  This  order  in- 
cludes three  groups :  Shore  birds,  as  plover,  snipe,  sand- 
piper, turnstone,  stilt,  woodcock,  curlew,  avocet,  yellow-legs. 
Heron  Group,  as  great  blue -heron,  bittern,  night- heron, 
squawk,  stork,  ibis,  spoonbill.  Crane  and  Rail  Group, 
as  whooping-crane,  sand-hill-crane,  Carolina-rail,  clapper- 
rail,  marsh-hen,  gallinule. 

IX.  LAMELLIROSTRES. — Swimmers,  with  teeth -like  edges  to 
their  bills,  as  ducks,  geese,  swans,  widgeon,  teal,  mergan- 
sers. 

X.  STEGANOPODES. — Swimmers,  whose  feet  have  three  full 
webs,  as  pelicans,  cormorants,  gannets,  snake-birds,  frig- 
ate, or  man-of-war  birds. 

XL  LONGIPENNES. — Swimmers,  with  very  long  wings,  as  gulls, 

albatross,  petrel,  tern. 

XII.  PYGOPODES. — Swimmers,  with  legs  placed  far  back  on 
the  body :  they  are  diving  birds,  as  loon,  grebe,  penguin, 
puffin,  auk. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  239 

REPTILES— ORDERS  OF. 
The  class  REPTILIA  is  divided  into  orders,  as  follows : 

I.  CHELONIA. — Turtles:  animals  whose  bodies  are  protected 
by  horn-like  shells,  as  box-turtles,  snapping-turtles,  mud- 
turtles,  terrapin,  hawk-bill-turtle,  wood-tortoise,  sea-turtles. 
II.  CROCODILIA. — Large  reptiles,  whose  bodies  are  covered 
with  horny  scales  and  bony  plates,  as  alligators  of  Amer- 
ica, and  crocodiles  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

III.  LACERTIA. — Lizards,  as  the  green  lizard,  striped  lizard,  igu- 

ana, gecko,  chameleon,  horned  toad. 

IV.  OPHIDIA. — Snakes:    scaly  reptiles   without   feet,  as  black- 

snake,  striped-snake,  water-snake,  rattlesnake,  copper-head, 
moccasin,  viper,  boa-constrictor. 


INSECTS—ORDERS  OF. 

The  class  INSECTA  is  divided  into  orders,  as  follows : 

I.  HYMENOPTERA.  —  Membrane  -  winged   insects,    with    four 
wings,  as  bees,  wasps,  gall-flies,  ichneumon-fly,  saw-fly,  ants. 
II.  LEPIDOPTERA. — Scaly-winged  insects,  with  four  wings,  as 
butterflies,  moths. 

III.  DIPTERA. — Two-winged  insects,  as  house-fly,  musquitocs, 

horse-fly,  wheat-fly,  bot-fly,  flesh-fly,  fleas,  sheep-ticks. 

IV.  COLEOPTERA. — Sheath- winged  insects,  with  upper  wings 

horny,  under  wings  membranous,  as  common  ground-bee- 
tle, tiger-beetle,  carrion-beetle,  snapping-bugs,  potato-beetle, 
lady-bugs,  long-horned-beetles,  weevils. 

V.  HEMIPTERA. — Not  full -winged:    two   hind    wings    much 
smaller  than  front  ones,  as  bugs,  harvest-flies,  seventeen- 
year-locusts,  tree-hopper,  plant-lice,  cochineal,  chinch-bug, 
'  squash-bug,  bed-bug,  aphis. 

VI.  ORTHOPTERA. — Straight  -  winged   insects:   front    or   outer 
wings   thick,  as  grasshopper,  migratory   locust,  cricket, 


240  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

katydid,  white-climbing-cricket,  mantis,  walking-stick  and 
walking-leaf,  cockroach,  earwig. 

VII.  NEUROPTERA. — Nerve-winged  insects,  with  four  net-veined 
wings,  as  dragon-flies,  May -flies,  stone- flies,  ant-lion,  cad- 
dis-fly, spring-tails. 


MAMMALS— FAMILIES   OF. 
FAMILIES  OF  FLESH -EATERS. 

The  order  III.  CARNIVORA  is  divided  into  families,  as  follows  : 
I.  FELID^E. —  Cat  Family:  round  head;  short  ears;  can  see 
as  well  by  night  as  by  day ;  teeth  adapted  to  tearing 
flesh;  rough  tongue;  sensitive  whiskers;  strong,  sharp, 
retractile  nails;  five  toes  on  each  forefoot;  feet  with 
soft  pads ;  skin  loose ;  covered  with  soft,  fine  hair,  as 
cats,  lynx,  panther,  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  jaguar,  ocelot. 

II.  MUSTELID^E. — Weasel  Family:  long,  slender  body;  short 
legs ;  sharp  claws ;  head  oval ;  teeth  long  and  sharp ; 
tongue  smooth ;  covered  with  thick,  soft  fur,  as  weasel, 
marten,  ferret,  mink,  ermine,  polecat,  otter,  badger,  wol- 
verine, skunk. 

III.  CANID^E. — Dog  Family:   long,  pointed   head;    long  ears; 

sharp  teeth ;  smooth  tongue,  as  dog,  wolf,  fox,  jackal. 

IV.  HYENID^E. — Hyena  Family:    fore  legs  longer  than  hind 

ones;  four  toes  on  each  foot ;  strong  jaws;  nocturnal  in 
habits ;  they  are  scavengers,  living  on  animals  which  they 
find  dead ;  inhabit  Africa  and  Asia. 

V.  URSID^E. — Bear  Family :  are  five-toed  ;  walk  on  the  whole 
sole  of  the  foot ;  eat  both  animal  and  vegetable  food,  as 
bears,  raccoons. 
VI.  VIVERRID^E. — Civet  Family :   have  some  resemblance   to 

cats,  also  to  raccoons,  as  civet-cats,  genet. 
VII.  PHOCID^E. — Seal  Family,  as  common  seals. 
VIII.  OTARIID.E. — Eared-seal  Family,  as  the  fur-seal,  or  sea-bear, 

and  sea-lion. 
IX.  ROSMARID^E. — Walrus  Family,  as  the  ivalrus. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  ANIMALS. 

I 

FAMILIES  OF  HOOFED  ANIMALS. 

The  order  IV.  UNGULATA  is  divided  into  two  groups — 
Ruminants — cud-chewers ;  and  Non-ruminants — hoofed 
animals  that  do  not  chew  their  food  twice.  The  ruminants 
are  divided  into  three  smaller  groups — hollow-horned,  sol- 
id-homed, hornless.  The  hoofed  quadrupeds  are  divided 
into  families,  as  follows  : 

FAMILIES   OF  RUMINANTS. 

I.  BOVID^E. — Ox,  Sheep,  and  Antelope  Family:  have  cloven 
hoofs ;  heads  long ;  no  front  teeth  on  upper  jaw ;  hol- 
low horns,  with  a  bony  pith  or  core,  and  do  not  shed 
their  horns ;  generally  timid ;  get  up  on  their  hind  feet 
first ;  chew  their  food  second  time,  while  at  rest ;  are  of 
great  service  to  man,  as  cow,  bison,  buffalo,  sheep,  goat, 
antelope,  gazelle,  horned-horse,  or  gnu. 

II.  CERVID.E. — Deer  Family:  have  cloven  hoofs;  long  heads; 
no  front  teeth  on  upper  jaw ;  solid,  branching  horns, 
which  are  shed  each  year;  very  timid;  get  up  on  hind 
feet  first ;  chew  their  food  second  time,  when  at  rest,  as 
deer,  moose,  caribou,  reindeer,  elk ;  musk-deer  of  Asia 
has  no  horns. 

III.  GIRAFFID^E. — Giraffe  Family:    the  tallest   quadruped;    fore 

legs  longer  than  hind  ones;  body  short;  neck  very  long; 
no  front  teeth  on  upper  jaw ;  short,  solid  horns ;  do  not 
shed  them  ;  chew  the  cud ;  has  a  prehensile  tongue ; 
feeds  on  leaves  of  trees;  native  of  Africa;  the  giraffe 
is  the  only  animal  of  this  family. 

IV.  CAMELID^E. — Camel  Family :  have  broad,  pad-like  feet,  with 

two  hoof -covered  toes;  have  front  teeth  on  upper  jaw  ; 
chew  the  cud ;  have  no  horns ;  native  of  Central  and 
South-western  Asia  and  South  America,  as  Bactrian  cam- 
el, Arabian  camel,  llama,  guanaco,  vicuna. 
11 


242  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

i 

NoN-RtMINANTS. 

V.  EQUID^E. — Horse  Family :  have  solid  hoofs ;  do  not  chew 
food  twice ;  get  up  on  their  forefeet  first,  as  the  horse, 
zebra,  ass. 

The  five  following  families  form  a  group  of  thick-skinned  ani- 
mals ;  hence  are  sometimes  called  pachyderms.  They  eat  vegeta- 
ble food ;  do  not  chew  the  cud ;  the  skin  is  nearly  naked,  or  cov- 
ered with  bristles ;  wallow  in  mud ;  most  of  them  have  tusks. 

VI.  ELEPHANTID^E. — Elephant  Family,  as  elephants. 
VII.  SUID^E. — Swine  Family,  as  hogs,  peccaries. 
VIII.  HIPPOPOTAMID^E. — Hippopotamus  Family,    as    hippopota- 
mus. 

IX.  RHINOCEROTIDJE. — Rhinoceros  Family,  as  rhinoceros. 
X.  TAPIRID^E. — Tapir  Family,  as  tapirs. 


FAMILIES  OF  GNAWERS. 

The  order  VII.  RODENTIA  is  divided  into  families,  as  follows : 

I.  MURID^E. — Rat  Family,  as  rats,  mice,  white -footed  field- 
mouse,  short-tailed  field-mouse  or  meadow-mouse,  jumping- 
mouse,  common  mouse,  harvest-mouse,  brown  rat,  muskrat, 
hamster,  leming. 

II.  SACCOMYID^E. — Pouched  -  gopher    Family:     have    cheek 
pouches,  as  pouched-gopher,  kangaroo-rats. 

III.  SCIURID^E. — Squirrel  Family:  generally  have  bushy  tails, 

as  squirrels,  chipmunk,  gray-gopher,  striped-gopher,  wood- 
chuck,  marmot,  prairie-dog. 

IV.  CASTORID^E. — Beaver  Family,  as  beavers. 

V.  HYSTRICID^E. — Porcupine  Family :  animals  covered  with 

quill-like  spines,  as  porcupines. 
VI.  DASYPROCTID^E. — Agouti  Family,  as  agouties  and  pacas  of 

South  America. 

VII.  CAVID^E. — Guinea-pig  Family,  which  is  not  a  pig  at  all, 
but  a  gnawing  animal  from  South  America. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  243 

VIII.  HYDROCHCERID^E. — Capybara  Family,  as  the  capybara  or 

water-hog  of  South  America. 
IX.  CHINCHILLID.E. — Chinchilla  Family,  as  the    chinchilla  of 

South  America,  valued  for  its  soft  fur ;  jereboa. 
X.  LEPORID^E. — Hare  Family,  as  hares,  rabbits,  etc. 

Families  of  Gnawers. — The  order  Rodentia  may  be 
known  by  their  front  teeth,  which  are  four  in  number — 
two  on  each  jaw.  They  are  curved,  and  have  chisel- 
shaped  ends.  The  front  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  very 
hard  enamel,  while  the  back  is  composed  of  a  softer  ma- 
terial. The  result  is,  the  softer  parts  wear  away,  by  gnaw- 
ing, faster  than  the  thin  fronts ;  thus  the  teeth  have  sharp, 
cutting  edges  all  the  time.  The  teeth  grow  at  the  base 
as  fast  as  they  wear  off,  so  that  they  keep  even  at  the 
ends.  These  teeth  are  fitted  for  cutting  very  hard  ma- 
terials. The  food  of  these  animals  consists  of  grains, 
nuts,  bark,  fruit,  roots,  etc.  They  are  all  timid,  and  trust 
to  concealment  or  flight  for  safety.  More  than  one-half 
of  all  the  mammals  in  the  world  belong  to  the  Order  of 
Rodents. 


BIRDS— FAMILIES   OF. 
BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

The  order  KAPTOKES  is  divided  into  three  groups — 
Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey,  as  eagles,  hawks  ;  Nocturnal 
Birds  of  Prey,  as  owls ;  Vultures.  This  order  is  also 
divided  into  families,  the  members  of  which  are  noted  for 
short,  strong  beaks,  which  end  in  a  sharp-pointed  hook, 
and  for  their  stout  legs,  large,  curved,  and  sharp  claws. 

I.  FALCONID^E. — Falcon  Family :  have  the  head  and  neck  fully 
covered  with  feathers;  eyebrows  projecting;  eyes  sunk- 
en and  piercing ;  sight  keen  and  very  extended ;  flight 
soaring ;  live  in  pairs ;  feed  on  flesh  of  animals  which 


244  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

they  capture ;  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  as  eagles, 
falcons,  hawks,  buzzards,  kites,  harriers,  fish-hawks. 

II.  STRIGID.E. — Owl  Family:  have  large,  round  heads;  short, 
hooked  beaks,  which  are  nearly  hidden  by  feathers; 
large  eyes,  with  widely  opening  pupils;  can  see  best 
during  twilight,  at  which  time  they  seek  their  food,  of 
mice,  reptiles,  and  small  birds ;  hearing  very  acute ;  fly 
without  making  a  noise ;  legs  and  feet  covered  with 
feathers ;  outer  toe  can  be  directed  forward  or  backward, 
as  barn-owl,  great  horned-owl,  screech-owl,  snowy-owl,  bur- 
rowing-owl. 

III.  VULTURID^E. — Vulture  Family:  have  head  and  neck  with- 
out feathers,  usually  naked,  or  sparsely  covered  with 
down  ;  eyes  not  sunken ;  sight  good ;  sense  of  smell  very 
strong;  feed  on  bodies  of  animals  found  dead;  live  in 
warm  countries ;  they  are  scavengers  among  birds,  as 
hyenas  are  among  quadrupeds.  The  Old  World  vult- 
ures are  the  -Arabian  vulture,  Angola  vulture,  bearded 
vulture.  The  last  has  feathers  on  its  head,  and  captures 
its  own  prey ;  it  is  more  like  an  eagle. 

IV.  CATHARTID^E. — American  Vultures,  as  the  condor  of  the 

Andes,  California  vulture,  turkey-buzzard,  carrion-crow. 
V.  GYPOGERANID^E. — The  Secretary-bird,  or  serpent-eater  of 
South  Africa. 


FAMILIES  OF  SCRATCHERS. 

The  order  Gallinae,  commonly  known  as  scratchers, 
comprises  five  families.  The  members  have  heavy  body ; 
small  head  ;  short  wings,  not  adapted  to  long  flight ;  toes 
nearly  straight,  with  short,  blunt  nails,  suitable  for  scratch- 
ing; three  front  toes  longest;  beaks  short  and  stout; 
build  nests  on  the  ground ;  usually  select  some  elevated 
position  for  a  roosting-place  at  night ;  young  are  hatched 
with  their  eyes  open,  and  are  able  to  run  about  soon  after 
leaving  their  shell;  food  consists  chiefly  of  grain,  seeds, 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  215 

and  insects;  lay  many  eggs.     This  order  is  divided  into 
families,  as  follows : 

I.  PHASIANID^E. — Pheasant  Family,  as  pheasants,  kens,  pea- 
cock, guinea-fowl. 
II.  MELEAGRID^E. — Turkey  Family,  as  turkeys. 

III.  TETRAONID^E. — Grouse  Family,   as   ruffed  -  grouse   or  par- 

tridge, prairie-hen,  quail,  ptarmigan. 

IV.  CRACID^E. — Curassow  Family,  as  curassow,  guan. 

V.  COLUMBID^E. — Pigeon  Family,  as  wild  pigeon,  carrier-pigeon, 
dove. 


FAMILIES  OF  PERCHERS. 

The  following  families  embrace  the  principal  groups 
of  perching  birds,  into  which  the  order  PASSERES  is  di- 
vided : 

I.  TURD  ID  JE. — Thrushes,    as    wood  -  thrush,   brown  -  thrush, 

mocking-bird,  catbird,  robin. 
II.  SAXICOLID^:. ,  as  stone-chats,  bluebirds. 

III.  CINCLID^E. — Dippers,  as  dipper,  water-ouzel. 

IV.  SYLVIID^E. ,  as  kinglet,  gnatcatchers. 

V.  PARID^E. — Chickadees,  as  chickadee,  titmouse. 

VI.  SITTID^E. — Nuthatches,  as  nuthatches. 
VII.  CERTHIID^E. — Creepers,  as  brown-creeper. 
VIII.  TROGLODYTID^E. — Wrens,  as  house-wren,  Carolina  ivren. 
IX.  ALAUDID^E. — Larks,  as  skylark  and  starling  of  Europe, 

horned-lark  of  United  States. 
X.  MONTACILLID^E. — Wagtails,   as   yellow   wagtail,  titlark, 

brown  lark,  Missouri  skylark,  pipit. 

XL  SYLVICOLIDJ-:. — American  Warblers,  as  worm  -  eating 
warbler,  blue  -  winged  yellow  warbler,  black  -  throated 
green  warbler,  yellow -breasted  chat,  hemlock  warbler, 
water-thrush,  Canadian  flycatcher,  redstart. 
XII.  TANAGRID^E. — Tanagers,  as  scarlet  tanager,  summer  red- 
bird. 


246  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

XIII.  HIRUNDINID^E. — Swallows,  as  barn-swallow,  cliff  or  eave 

swallow,  bank-swallow  or  sand-martin. 

XIV.  AMPELID^E.  —  Waxwings,  as   Carolina   ivaxwing,  cedar- 

bird  ;  feed  on  berries  and  soft  fruit. 

XV.  VIREONID^E. — Vireos,  as  red-eyed  vireo,  warbling  vireo. 
XVI.  LANIID^E. — Shrikes,  as  butcher-bird. 

XVII.  FRINGILLIDJS. — Finches,  as  grosbeak,  bullfinch,  crossbill, 
yellow -bird,  snow -bunting,  snow-bird,  song -sparrow, 
chip-bird  or  chipping-sparrow,  Jield-sparrow,  English 
sparrow,  rose -breasted  grosbeak,  indigo -bird,  cardinal 
red-bird,  canary-bird. 

XVIII.  ICTERID^E. — American  Starlings,  as  bobolink,  or  reed-bird, 

or  rice-bird  (the  same  bird  has  these  different  names), 

cow-bird,  yellow-headed  blackbird,  red-winded  blackbird, 

field-lark,  Baltimore  oriole  or  hang-nest,  purple  grackle. 

XIX.  CORVID^E. — Crows,  jays,  etc.,  as  raven,  crow,  magpie,  blue- 

m- 

XX.  TYRANNIES. — Flycatchers,  as  kingbird,  crested-fiy catch- 
er, pewee  or  phcebe,  wood-pewee,  green-crested  fiy catcher, 
least  fiycatcher. 


PLANTS.  247 


PLANTS. 

PLANTS  are  living  things ;  they  feed,  grow,  and  perform 
various  kinds  of  work.  Their  forms,  colors,  uses,  habits, 
and  other  characteristics  place  them  among  objects  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  careful  observation. 
Indeed,  the  study  of  plants  may  be  called  the  science  of 
observation. 

Each  part  of  the  plant  performs  its  own  peculiar  part 
of  the  work.  The  root  holds  it  to  the  ground,  and  absorbs 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  The  leaves  absorb  light  and 
air,  and  aid  in  changing  the  fluids  and  nourishment  that 
are  taken  up  by  the  roots  into  materials  for  building  up 
the  plant.  The  ~buds  hold  and  protect  the  blossoms  until 
the  time  of  their  flowering.  The  blossom  produces  the 
fruit.  The  bark  of  exogens  protects  the  tender  new  wood 
which  is  formed  each  year  outside  of  the  old  wood. 

How  Plants  Take  Food. — The  food  of  plants  is  al- 
ways liquid  and  gaseous,  never  solid.  The  roots  absorb 
water,  in  which  mineral  matters,  such  as  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  potash,  and  iron  are  dissolved ;  and  this 
fluid  ascends  through  the  stem,  and  branches  to  the  cells 
of  the  leaves.  The  leaves  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  from 
the  air,  which  also  enters  the  leaf  cells,  where  the  sunlight 
causes  chemical  changes  to  take  place,  by  which  the  car- 
bon is  separated  and  retained  by  the  plant,  and  oxygen 
given  back  to  the  air.  The  carbon  unites  with  the  fluid 
in  the  cells,  and  forms  starch  in  a  liquid  state.  This  sap 
is  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  where  growth  takes 


248  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

place,  and  supplies  the  materials  for  the  nourishment  and 
growth  of  the  plant,  somewhat  as  the  blood  in  animals 
supplies  the  nourishment  for  their  growth.  Thus  we  see 
that  plants  must  have  water,  air,  and  sunlight  to  enable 
them  to  take  food  and  grow,  [See  pages  130, 131.] 

How  Seeds  Grow. — Place  seeds  of  plants,  as  peas, 
beans,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  mustard,  etc.,  in  the  earth,  where 
they  will  have  warmth,  moisture,  and  air,  and  each  will 
develop  a  root  to  absorb  nourishment  from  the  ground, 
and  a  stem  to  reach  above  the  ground  for  light  and  air. 
The  stem  becomes  the  support  of  leaves,  buds,  and  flowers. 

Buds  form  on  trees  in  autumn,  and  remain  dormant 
till  spring;  they  are  covered  with  scales  that  protect  them 
from  wet  and  cold.  The  warmth  of  the  sun  in  spring, 
together  with  air  arid  moisture,  causes  the  buds  to  expand 
into  leaves  and  blossoms,  the  sap  or  juice  to  flow  from 
the  roots  through  the  trunk,  limbs,  and  leaves,  and  the 
process  of  growth  to  take  place  throughout  the  tree  or 
plant. 

Annual  Plants  are  those  which  grow  from  seed,  blos- 
som, and  die  each  year,  as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  'mustard, 
beans,  morning-glory,  etc. 

Biennial  Plants. — Some  plants  grow  during  the  first 
year  after  the  seed  is  planted,  live  through  the  winter, 
blossom  and  produce  seed  the  second  year,  then  die. 
These  are  called  biennials.  To  this  class  belong  the  tur- 
nip,  carrot,  beet,  parsnip,  radish,  etc. 

Perennial  Plants. — Some  plants  live  on  year  after 
year,  as  trees,  shrubs,^nd  other  plants  with  woody  stems, 
as  rose-bush,  grape-vine,  ivy ;  also  plants  with  soft  stems 
that  die  to  their  roots  each  year,  among  which  are  those 
called  herbs,  as  sweet -flag,  iris,  lily,  peppermint,  and 
grasses  ;  also  the  dahlia,  peony, pink,  and  other  flowering 


PLANTS.  249 

plants.     Shrubs  seldom  grow  to  a  height  twice  that  of  a 
man. 

Habits  of  Plants. — Plants  not  only  grow,  blossom, 
and  produce  fruit,  but  many  of  them  have  very  interest- 
ing habits,  among  which  are  those  of  climbing  by  creeping 
and  by  twining,  sleeping  and  awaking,  catching  insects, 
etc. 

The  English  ivy,  the  poison  ivy,  and  the  trumpet-creep- 
er climb  by  creeping.  They  creep  up  the  face  of  walls 
and  the  trunks  of  trees  by  fastening  little  flat  rootlets, 
which  the  plant  sends  out  along  the  stem  against  the 
supporting  objects. 

The  hop,  some  kinds  of  beans,  morning-glory,  honey- 
suckles, and  other  plants  climb  by  twining  spirally  around 
some  supporting  object.  But  these  do  not  all  twine  in 
the  same  direction.  The  hop  and  some  honeysuckles 
twine  around  with  the  sun — from  right  toward  the  left. 
The  bean,  morning-glory,  and  nearly  all  the  other  twining 
plants  turn  around  against  the  sun — from  left  toward  the 
right. 

The  pea,  grape-vine,  Virginia  creeper,  and  passion-flow- 
er climb  by  tendrils.  The  clematis  climbs  by  the  foot- 
stalk of  the  loaf,  which  coils  like  a  tendril. 

Sleeping  and  Waking. — Some  plants  have  regular  habits 
as  to  the  time  of  closing  and  opening  their  blossoms  and 
leaves.  The  locust  and  wood-sorrel  turn  down  their  leaf- 
lets at  night,  and  turn  them  up  again  in  the  morning. 
The  honey-locust  raises  its  leaves  upright  at  night,  and 
turns  them  down  again  in  the  morning. 

The  morning-glory  opens  its  blossoms  about  two  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  and  closes  them  about  ten  o'clock  in  the 
forenoon.  The  vegetable  oyster  opens  at  four  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  and  closes  about  noon.  The  four- o'clock 
opens  about  four  o'clock  P.M.  The  evening  primrose 


250  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

opens  about  six  o'clock  P.M.  The  Cereus  grandiflora 
blooms  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  the  flower 
lasts  but  a  few  hours. 

Plants  have  Family  Relatives. — Some  plants  have 
a  great  many  family  relatives.  The  Rose  Family  is  very 
large,  and  also  a  very  important  one.  All  of  our  delicious 
berries  and  fruits  belong  to  this  useful  family.  The  onion, 
the  garlic,  and  asparagus  are  family  relatives  of  the  lily- 
of-the- valley.  The  Pink  Family  is  a  large  one,  but  is 
chiefly  noted  for  its  pretty  flowers.  It  does  not  supply 
us  with  food  or  medicine. 

Hints  for  Manner  of  Giving  Lessons  on  Plants. — 
Such  facts  as  the  foregoing,  and  many  similar  ones,  may 
be  so  presented  to  children  as  to  gratify  their  desire  to 
know  about  these  things  which  they  see  daily ;  and  les- 
sons on  plants  may  be  conducted  in  a  manner  to  awaken 
in  the  pupils  a  deep  interest  for  the  study  of  plants,  while 
they  are  acquiring  excellent  habits  of  careful  observation 
that  will  be  valuable  to  them  in  any  position  in  life. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  first  lessons  do  not  be- 
come too  formal  and  technical  by  attempting  to  follow 
the  lessons  in  the  text-book  on  botany ;  also  that  they  be 
sufficiently  general  in  their  character  to  permit  that  prop- 
er range  of  observation  which  children  can  make  under 
a  guidance  which  allows  the  greatest  freedom  consistent 
with  the  accumulation  of  facts  for  association  and  subse- 
quent classification.  As  the  interest  and  knowledge  of 
the  pupils  increase,  and  the  facts  learned  become  some- 
what numerous,  more  and  more  system  may  be  introduced 
into  the  lessons.  In  the  beginning  of  the  lessons  seek 
rather  to  follow  Nature  than  to  lead  her.  Let  the  chil- 
dren see  whole  things  first,  and  afterward  lead  them  to 
notice  parts  of  them  and  single  facts.  Gradually  lead 
the  pupils  to  notice  as  many  facts  as  possible  that  are  pe- 


PLANTS.  251 

culiar  to  any  particular  plant.  Tell  them  some  facts,  not 
easily  discovered,  to  arouse  their  curiosity,  but  request 
them  to  look  for  themselves  and  verify  that  which  you 
tell  them,  that  it  may  be  more  vividly  and  firmly  fixed 
in  their  minds.  Point  out,  also,  the  way  by  which  pupils 
can  discover  new  facts  for  themselves.  Let  the  teacher's 
constant  aim  be,  during  all  these  lessons,  to  lead  the  pupils 
to  stand  face  to  face  with  nature,  and  learn  to  use  their 
own  senses  in  gaining  knowledge. 

Leaves. — For  some  lessons  let  children  collect  leaves  and  com- 
pare their  shapes,  and  learn  names  for  their  shapes. 

Hoots. — For  some  lessons  let  the  pupils  notice  the  different 
shapes  of  roots,  and  learn  their  names. 

Shapes  of  Flowers. — For  other  lessons  let  them  notice  those 
flowers  that  resemble  common  objects,  as  bell -shaped,  funnel- 
shaped,  butterfly-shaped,  etc. 

Family  of  Plants. — Teaching  children  to  distinguish  those 
traits  of  resemblance  by  which  plants  are  grouped  into  families 
will  supply  many  interesting  lessons.  Here  good  text-books  on 
botany  may  be  used  to  aid  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

During  those  lessons  on  plants  in  which  the  chief  pur- 
pose is  to  awaken  a  desire  to  know  more  about  nature, 
and  to  form  habits  of  investigation  as  a  means  of  devel- 
oping the  mental  powers  of  your  pupils,  and  of  leading^ 
them  to  accumulate  practical  knowledge  by  their  own 
experiences,  remember  that  you  must  not  make  these  les- 
sons a  formal  study  of  botany. 


252  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


FACTS    FOR    TEACHERS. 
ABOUT  PLANTS. 

TEACHERS  need  to  have  within  easy  access  a  variety  of  facts 
about  each  subject  of  instruction  as  a  means  of  ready  reference, 
and  as  an  aid  in  the  preparation  of  lessons  for  their  pupils.  With 
the  view  of  meeting  this  need,  in  part,  on  the  subject  of  Plants, 
the  following  statements  and  descriptions  are  given.  These  are 
not  to  be  used  as  lessons  for  the  pupils  to  learn,  but  to  suggest 
to  teachers  some  of  the  important  facts  relating  to  plants  which 
they  may  lead  their  pupils  to  observe. 

Lessons  for  systematic  instruction  upon  any  subject  ought  to 
commence  with  objects,  belonging  to  that  subject,  which  are  al- 
ready familiar  to  children  by  common  notice;  therefore  leaves, 
flowers,  and  roots  are  among  suitable  subjects  for  early  lessons 
upon  plants. 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  teacher  that 
the  habits  of  careful  observation,  comparison,  and  classification 
which  the  pupils  acquire  by  proper  attention  to  this  subject  is  of 
at  least  as  much  value  to  them  as  all  the  facts  which  they  may 
learn  concerning,  the  subject.  Hence,  in  conducting  the  lessons 
on  plants,  the  teacher  should  give  more  attention  to  the  forma- 
tion of  proper  habits  of  learning  than  to  the  mere  acquisition  of 
facts  by  memory. 

SHAPES  OF  LEAVES. 

NEEDLE-SHAPED. — [Acerose.]  Long,  slender  leaves,  of  equal  size 
throughout,  usually  growing  in  clusters,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Pine. 
The  White  Pine  \\^five  leaves  in  a  cluster,  each  from  three  to  four 
inches  long.  The  Pitch  Pine  has  three  leaves  in  a  cluster,  each  from 
four  to  five  inches  long.  The  Red  Pine  has  two  leaves  in  a  cluster, 
each  from  five  to  six  inches  long.  Some  other  varieties  of  Pine 
have  the  same  number  of  leaves  in  a  cluster  as  each  of  the  above, 
but  their  leaves  differ  in  size  and  length. 


PLANTS.  253 

SWORD-SHAPED.  —  [Ensiform.  Linear.}  Linear  leaves  are  very 
narrow,  and  several  times  longer  than  their  width,  with  parallel 
edges  or  margins,  as  the  leaves  of  Grass.  Ensiform  leaves  are  also 
linear,  but  the  form  of  the  leaves  resembles  the  English  sword,  or 
the  cut-and-thrust  sword,  while  the  grass  leaf  resembles  the  rapier,  a 
straight  sword.  The  Iris,  or  Flag-leaf,  is  ensiform. 

LANCE-SHAPED. — [Lanceolate.}  Leaf  several  times  longer  than  its 
width,  narrow,  and  gradually  tapering  to  a  slender  point,  as  the 
Peach  leaf  and  the  Willow  leaf. 

ARROW-SHAPED. — [Sagittate.}  Long,  narrow,  and  tapering  to  a 
point,  with  pointed  lobes  at  the  base,  extending  backward  like  an 
arrow-head,  as  the  leaf  of  the  Calla,  Scratch-grass,  and  Arrow-head. 

SPEAR-SHAPED. —  [Hastate.]  Leaves  generally  broader  than  the 
arrow-shaped,  tapering  more  abruptly  to  a  point,  and  having  the 
pointed  lobes  at  the  base  extending  outward,  as  the  leaves  of  com- 
mon Sorrel,  Bind-weed,  Sage. 

SHIELD-SHAPED. — [Peltate.}  A  circular  leaf,  with  the  stem  attach- 
ed near  the  centre  of  the  lower  surface,  as  in  the  Nasturtium,  Man- 
drake, White  Water-lily. 

EAR-SHAPED. — [Auriculate}  This  name  pertains  only  to  the  lose 
of  the  leaf,  and  is  applied  to  those  leaves  having  small,  rounded 
lobes,  or  ear-like  projections  on  each  side  of  the  stem,  like  the  lobes 
of  the  ears,  as  the  base  of  the  leaf  of  the  Ear-leaf  Magnolia. 

EGG-SHAPED. — [Ovate.}  An  ovate  leaf  has  a  broad,  curved  base 
and  a  narrower  curved  apex,  with  the  entire  form  like  that  of  a 
common  egg,  as  a  Rose  leaf. 

HEART-SHAPED. — [  Cordate.}  When  an  egg-shaped  leaf  has  a  notch 
at  the  base,  or  when  the  leaf  has  the  shape  in  which  a  heart  is  usual- 
ly represented,  it  is  called  heart-shaped,  as  the  leaf  of  the  Morning- 
glory  and  the  Lilac. 

KIDNEY-SHAPED. — [Reniform.}  A  kidney-shaped  leaf  is  broader 
than  it  is  long ;  it  is  a  short,  rounded  leaf,  having  a  base  somewhat 
like  the  heart-shaped  leaf,  but  with  the  base  lobes  more  distant  from 
the  stem  than  in  the  latter,  as  the  Wild  Ginger  leaf. 

HAND-SHAPED. — [Palmate}  A  leaf  that  is  divided  into  five  lobes, 
or  parts,  without  these  parts  being  separated  to  the  base  or  stem,  as 
the  Sweet-gum  leaf  and  some  Maple  leaves. 

Leaves  that  are  divided  into  separate  parts,  or  fingers,  are  called 
Digitate  or  Fingered  leaves,  as  the  Virginia  Creeper,  the  Buckeye. 


254:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

WEDGE-SHAPED. — [  Cuneate.]  A  leaf  that  is  broad  at  the  top,  and 
tapers  with  nearly  straight  edges  to  the  stem,  like  a  wedge,  as  the 
leaf  of  the  Cockspur-thorn. 

OBLONG  LEAP. — A  leaf  that  is  at  least  two  and  a  half  or  three 
times  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  and  of  nearly  the  same  breadth  through- 
out its  length ;  it  is  narrowly  elliptical  in  shape,  as  the  Rose-lay, 
Primrose. 

OVAL  LEAF. — A  leaf  that  is  broadly  elliptical  in  form;  usually  the 
ends  are  more  sharply  rounded  than  in  the  oblong  leaf,  with  the 
breadth  not  quite  half  as  great  as  the  length.  When  the  breadth 
is  twice  the  length,  or  a  little  more,  with  the  outline  of  an  ellipse, 
the  shape  is  called  elliptical.  The  oval  leaf  is  represented  in  the 
Beaver-tree,  or  small  Magnolia. 

ORBICULAR  LEAF. — [  Circular,  RotundJ]  A  leaf  that  has  a  resem- 
blance to  a  circular  shape,  with  the  stern  attached  nearer  the  base 
than  in  the  peltate  leaf,  as  Round-leaved  Sundew,  Marsh-marigold. 

FEATHER-SHAPED. — [Pinnate.]  A  compound  leaf  in  which  the 
leaflets  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  a  main  leaf-stalk,  as  the  Locust, 
Ash.  Sometimes  the  leaflets  are  themselves  divided  and  arranged 
on  the  sides  of  branches  of  the  main  leaf-  stalk,  as  in  the  Honey- 
locust.  Such  leaves  are  said  to  be  feathered,  or  doubly  -pinnate,  or 
twice-pinnate,  or  bi-pinnate. 

ROUND-LOBED,  SHARp-LOBED. — [Zo&ofe.]  When  the  sides  of  a 
leaf  are  cut  into  an  equal  number  of  parts,  with  the  incisions  extend- 
ing from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  distance  from  the  edge  to  the 
mid-vein,  it  is  said  to  be  lobed.  If  these  parts  or  lobes  are  rounded, 
the  leaf  is  said  to  be  round-lobed,  as  in  the  White  Oak.  If  the  lobes 
are  sharp  or  pointed,  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  sharp-ldbed,  as  in  the  Red 
Oak. 

PERFORATED  LEAF. — [Perfoliate.]  When  the  stem  grows  through 
the  leaf  near  one  end,  it  is  called  a  perfoliate  leaf,  or  perforated  leaf, 
as  the  Bellwort  and  the  Honeysuckle. 

LYRE-SHAPED. — [Li/rate.]  A  leaf  with  the  lower  part  lobed  and 
the  upper  part  somewhat  circular,  or  broad  and  rounded,  as  the 
Radish  leaf,  Turnip  leaf. 

DEEPLY-CUT,  or  GASHED  LEAF. — [Laciniate.]  A  leaf  that  appears 
as  if  torn,  or  cut  in  deep  and  irregular  gashes,  having  the  parts  long 
and  narrow,  as  MonTc's-head. 

FOOT-SHAPED. — [Pedate.~]  A  leaf  with  several  deep  clefts  sepa- 
rating it  into  long,  narrow  parts,  resembling  the  toes  of  a  bird's  foot, 
as  the  Passion-jlower,  Christmas-rose. 


PLANTS.  255 

WHORLED  LEAVES. — [  Verticillate.]     Three  or  more  leaves  growing 
around  the  stem  of  a  plant,  in  a  circle,  as  in  the  Red-lily,  Trumpet- 


BUNDLED,  or  CLUSTERED  LEAVES. — [Fascicled.'}  A  bunch  of  many 
short,  needle-shaped  leaves  growing  in  a  cluster,  on  a  short,  bud-like 
branch,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Larch,  Tamarack. 


SHAPES   OF  FLOWERS. 

FUNNEL-SHAPED. — [Infundibuliform.]  A  tubular  flower  which 
gradually  enlarges  from  its  base,  and  rapidly  spreads  out  at  the  up- 
per part  into  a  wide,  circular  border.  So  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  common  funnel.  Examples :  Morning-glory,  Stramonium, 
Tobacco, 

TRUMPET-SHAPED,  or  TUBULAR. — A  flower  having  a  long,  narrow 
tube,  widening  -at  the  end,  and  resembling  a  trumpet,  or  horn.  Ex- 
amples :  Trumpet-honeysuckle,  Fuchsias. 

BELL-SHAPED. — [  Campanulate.~\  A  flower  having  a  shape  like  a 
common  bell.  Examples :  Harebell,  Bell-jlower,  Canterbury-bell. 

SALVER-SHAPED. — [Hypocrateriform.~\  A  tubular  flower,  the  upper 
end  of  which  spreads  out  abruptly  into  a  flat  border,  like  an  ancient 
tray,  or  salver.  Examples :  Phlox,  Heliotrope,  Lilac. 

LDP-SHAPED. — [Labiate.]  A  flower  with  a  tubular  base,  having 
the  upper  part  open  so  as  to  resemble  lips,  or  a  mouth.  Examples : 
Sage,  Hyssop,  Skull-cap. 

CROSS-SHAPED. — [  Cruciform.]  A  flower  with  four  spreading  pet- 
als standing  at  right  angles,  so  as  to  resemble  a  Maltese  cross.  Ex- 
amples :  Mustard,  Wallflower,  Water-cress. 

WHEEL-SHAPED. — [Rotate.]  Sometimes  called  Star -shaped.  A 
flower  without  a  tube,  or  with  a  very  short  one,  which  seems  to 
spread  out  into  five  distinct  divisions,  somewhat  like  a  wheel  with 
five  spokes.  Examples :  Potato-blossom,  Tomato,  Mullein,  Bitter-sweet. 

BUTTERFLY-SHAPED. — [Papilionaceous.]  A  flower  consisting  of 
five  dissimilar  petals,  so  arranged  as  to  resemble  a  butterfly.  The 
large  petal  at  the  top  is  called  the  "  banner ;"  the  two  side  petals 
are  called  "  wings ;"  and  the  two  central,  lower  petals,  which  appear 
to  be  joined,  are  called  the  "  keel,"  from  the  resemblance  to  the 
prow  of  an  ancient  boat.  Examples:  Sweet -pea,  Locust,  Wistaria, 
Bean,  Clover. 


256  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

HELMET-SHAPED. — \,Galeated.~]  A  flower  having  its  upper  part  in 
the  form  of  a  hood,  or  helmet.  Example :  Monk's-hood. 

STRAP-SHAPED. — [Ligidate.]  This  form  is  seen  in  plants  with 
compound  flowers,  as  China -aster,  Daisy,  Coreopsis,  Sunflower,  etc. 
Each  strap-shaped  flower,  which  appears  so  much  like  a  single  flat 
petal  of  an  ordinary  flower,  is  a  distinct  flower.  Its  edges  are  rolled 
together  at  the  base,  so  as  to  form  a  short,  tubular  portion.  Great 
numbers  of  these  single  flowers  grow  together,  forming  what  is  com- 
monly called  compound  flowers. 

PINK-SHAPED. — [Caryophillaceous.]  A  flower  with  five  broad  pet- 
als, each  with  a  long  claw  extending  down  into  a  tubular  cup,  or 
calyx.  Examples  :  Pink,  Bouncing-bet. 

LILY-SHAPED. — [Liliaceous.}  A  flower,  somewhat  bell-shaped,  with 
six  petals  of  uniform  size  and  color,  and  six  stamens.  The  petals 
turn  back  at  the  mouth  of  the  flower,  so  as  to  separate  widely  at 
their  outer  ends.  Examples :  Tiger-lily,  White-lily,  Japan-lily. 


SHAPES  OF  ROOTS. 

CONICAL  ROOT. — A  solid  root  which  tapers  regularly  from  the 
upper  end  to  its  lower  extremity,  as  the  Carrot,  Parsnip,  and  some 
Beets. 

SPINDLE-SHAPED  ROOT. — [Fusiform.}  A  solid  root  which  increases 
in  size  from  the  top  toward  the  centre,  and  tapers  regularly  from 
the  centre  to  the  lower  extremity.  It  tapers  from  near  the  middle 
toward  each  end,  as  the  Radish,  Ginseng,  and  some  Beets. 

TURNIP-SHAPED. — [Napiform.]  A  short,  solid  root  which  abrupt- 
ly swells  out  at  its  upper  part,  and  abruptly  diminishes  in  size,  so 
that  the  diameter  of  its  body  is  equal  to  or  greater  than  its  length  ; 
and  it  has  a  small  tapering  root  extending  from  its  bottom,  as  the 
common  Turnip  and  some  Radishes. 

TUBEROUS  ROOTS. — Several  fleshy  roots  growing  in  a  bunch,  each 
usually  having  a  few  fibres,  as  the  roots  of  the  Dahlia,  Orchis,  Peony, 
Sweet-potato. 

TUBERS. — In  some  plants  the  ends  of  the  root-like  branches  of  the 
stems  which  grow  underground  become  greatly  enlarged  and  thick- 
ened into  fleshy  knobs,  each  of  which  contains  several  buds,  or  eyes; 
these  knobs  are  called  tubers,  as  in  the  common  Potato  and  Articholce. 


PLANTS.  257 

BULB. — A  fleshy  bud  growing  in  the  ground,  usually  of  the  shape 
of  a  flattened  spheroid,  having  fibrous  roots  attached  at  the  bottom. 
Bulbs  are  usually  formed  of  thick,  fleshy  scales,  or  layers,  as  the 
Onion,  Lily. 

CORM. — A  solid  bulb,  or  fleshy  stem,  growing  underground,  having 
a  shape  somewhat  like  a  flattened  spheroid,  as  the  solid  bulbs,  or 
conns,  of  the  Crocus,  Gladiolus,  Indian-turnip. 

BRANCHING  ROOTS. — Woody  roots  with  numerous  branches,  re- 
sembling the  branches  of  a  tree,  as  the  roots  of  trees,  and  also  of 
shrubs. 

FIBROUS  ROOTS. — A  cluster  of  slender,  thread-like  roots,  nearly 
uniform  in  size,  growing  directly  from  the  base  of  the  plant  stem,  as 
Grass  Roots,  Grain  Roots,  and  the  roots  of  many  of  the  annual  plants. 

BUNDLED  ROOTS. — [Fascicled.']  Roots  that  grow  in  a  cluster, 
somewhat  like  fibrous  roots,  but  which  are  much  larger  and  more 
fleshy,  as  Crowfoot,  Buttercup. 

RUNNER,  or  CREEPER. — A  prostrate  stem  that  creeps  along  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  sends  roots  downward  at  each  joint,  and 
puts  forth  steins  and  leaves  above  them,  thus  forming  new  plants, 
as  the  Strawberry-plant. 

ROOT  STOCK. — [Rhizoma.]  A  fleshy,  horizontal  stem,  or  branch, 
growing  underground,  with  joints  and  branches,  as  Sweet-flag,  Ginger, 
Solomons-seal.,  Blood-root. 

NOTE.— For  further  information  relative  to  names  that  may  be  applied  to 
modified  forms  of  the  shapes  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  roots  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  see  a  good  text-book  on  Botany.  For  colored  illustrations 
of  these,  see  Prang's  Natural  History  Series,  representing  the  three  groups 
here  described. 


258  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


FAMILIES   OF   PLANTS. 

THE  examination  and  comparison  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
same  family,  and  possessing  many  similar  characteristics,  furnish 
excellent  means  for  training  children  to  acquire  habits  of  careful 
observation  and  discrimination,  and  the  ability  to  distinguish 
those  peculiarities  which  indicate  relationship  in  the  vegetable 
world.  To  accomplish  this  important  attainment  the  pupils  must 
themselves  handle,  examine,  and  compare  the  plants  and  flowers 
until  they  become  familiar  with  the  leading  characteristics  of  the 
family.  Suitable  pictures  will  aid  the  pupils  in  this  work,  but 
the  plants  and  their  flowers  must  become  familiar  by  actual  ex- 
amination before  a  real  knowledge  of  them  can  be  gained. 

The  following  descriptions  are  given  here  to  assist  the  teacher 
in  directing  the  attention  of  pupils  to  those  characteristics  of 
plants  by  which  family  relations  may  be  determined.  To  give 
a  complete  list  of  the  members  of  the  following  families  has  not 
been  attempted  here.  Such  members  of  each  family  have  been 
selected  as  best  represent  leading  traits  of  the  family.  For  a  de- 
scription of  other  members  of  these  and  of  different  families,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  good  text-books  on  botany. 

The  teacher  will  please  bear  in  mind  that  these  descriptions 
are  not  to  be  taught  the  pupils  as  lessons  to  be  recited,  yet  they 
may  be  used  to  assist  in  discovering  the  family  traits. 


The  Lily  Family. — [Liliacem.]  It  is  generally  known  by  its 
regular,  symmetrical,  and  richly  colored  flowers,  with  six  petals,  sim- 
ilarly colored,  and  six  stamens  and  one  pistil.  The  flower  is  never 
enclosed  in  a  sheath,  except  in  the  onion  group.  The  stamens  are 
usually  inserted  in  or  near  the  base  of  the  petals. 

The  seed-vessel,  or  ovary,  is  three-celled,  with  the  seeds  packed 
one  upon  another.  The  roots  of  lilies,  which  are  usually  bulbous 
(sometimes  tuberous,  or  fibrous),  live  from  year  to  year.  The  leaves 
are  parallel-veined,  and  generally  narrow. 


PLANTS.  259 

The  members  of  this  family  are  chiefly  natives  of  temperate  cli- 
mates. Some  of  them  are  used  for  food,  as  the  onion,  garlic,  and  as- 
paragus, and  others  for  medicine.  A  medicinal  substance  obtained 
from  the  bulb  of  a  lily  found  in  the  south  of  Europe  is  known  as 
squills.  There  are  1200  species  of  lilies. 

SUPEKB  LILY,  or  TURK'S  CAP. — [Lilium  superbumJ]  Grows  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States,  in  prairies  and  meadows,  also  cultivated 
in  gardens.  Flowers  of  a  bright  orange  color,  with  purple  spots. 

WHITE  LILY. — [Lilium  candidum.]  Native  of  Persia ;  cultivated 
here  in  gardens.  Has  a  thick  stem,  four  feet  high,  supporting  a  clus- 
ter of  large,  snow-white,  bell-shaped  flowers. 

YELLOW  LILY.  —  [Lilium  Canadense.]  Native  of  Canada  and 
United  States.  Stem  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  often  containing 
seven  or  more  nodding  flowers  of  a  yellow  or  orange  color,  spotted 
with  purple  inside. 

TIGER  LILY. — [Lilium  tigrinum.]  Native  of  China ;  cultivated  in 
gardens.  Stern  four  or  five  feet  high,  containing  several  orange-red 
flowers,  thickly  spotted  with  black. 

JAPAN  LILY. — [Lilium  Japonicum.~]  From  Japan ;  cultivated  here. 
Stem  two  feet  high,  usually  bearing  a  single,  large,  white,  nodding 
flower.  The  petals  are  compressed  into  a  narrow  tube  at  the  base, 
but  widely  separated  at  the  outer  ends. 

PHILADELPHIA  LILY. — [Lilium  PhiladelpJiicumJ]  Common  in  the 
Northern  States.  Flowers  bell-shaped  ;  petals  narrow,  and  separated 
down  to  the  base,  of  reddish  orange  color,  and  spotted  inside  with 
dark  purple. 

TULIP. — [Tulipa  Gesneriana.]  Native  of  Persia;  cultivated  here. 
Stem  about  one  foot  high  ;  flower  erect,  and  bell-shaped,  with  short 
stamens.  Colors  variegated.  There  are  several  hundred  varieties. 

CROWN  IMPERIAL. — [Fritillaria  imperialist  Native  of  Persia ; 
cultivated.  Stem  thick,  about  three  feet  high,  bearing  at  the  top  a 
cluster  of  large  red,  or  yellow,  nodding  flowers,  beneath  a  crown  of 
narrow,  green  leaves. 

LILY-OF-THE-V  ALLEY. — [Convallaria  majalis.]  Native  of  Europe; 
also  of  mountains  from  Virginia  to  Georgia.  Usually  has  two  leaves 
enclosing  a  stem  about  six  inches  long,  from  the  upper  side  of  which 
hang  little  white  bells,  six  parted  on  the  edge.  These  flowers  are 
very  fragrant. 


260  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

HYACINTH. — \Hyacinihu8  oricntalis.]  Native  of  Asia  Minor;  com- 
mon, as  early  house  plants.  Flower  stems  are  twice  as  long  as  the 
leaves,  and  bear  a  dense  cluster  of  small  flowers,  fragrant,  and  of 
various  colors. 

STAR  OP  BETHLEHEM. — [  Omithogalum  umbellatum.]  From  Europe ; 
also  growing  wild  in  the  United  States.  Leaves  grass-shaped ;  flow- 
er-stalk about  one  foot  high,  and  branching.  Flowers  in  a  group, 
white  within,  and  marked  with  a  stripe  of  green  on  the  outside  of 
the  petals. 

"Water -lily  Family.  WATER-LILY.  —  [NympMa,  odorata.] 
It  will  be  readily  observed  that  this  flower  has  not  the  form  of  a 
true  lily.  Indeed,  it  does  not  even  belong  to  the  family,  but  to  the 
Water-lily  Family,  or  Nymphceacece.  It  is  a  water-plant,  growing  in 
lakes  and  ponds,  with  the  leaves  and  flowers  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

The  flowers  of  the  water-lily  are  commonly  white,  sometimes  pink- 
ish, or  yellowish.  The  petals  are  numerous,  and  grow  in  regular 
rows.  The  stems,  which  are  very  long,  grow  from  a  root-stock  in- 
stead of  a  bulb.  This  and  the  following  species  were  placed  in  this 
group  to  show  the  pupils  that  the  common  pond-lily,  though  called 
a  "  lily,"  differs  widely  from  the  true  lilies ;  and  to  impress  upon 
them  the  fact  that  it  belongs  to  a  widely  different  family. 

VICTORIA  REGIA. — This  great  water-lily  of  South  America  belongs 
to  the  same  family  as  our  pond-lily.  Its  leaves  grow  from  four  to 
six  feet  in  diameter.  The  flowers  are  sometimes  one  foot  in  diameter. 

The  Nile  Lotus  also  belongs  to  the  same  family.* 

The  Pink  Family.— The  pink  plant  has  narrow,  bluish-green 
leaves,  attached  to  the  stem  opposite  to  each  other.  The  stem  is 
slender  and  branching,  and  has  swollen  joints.  The  flower-cup,  or 
calyx,  is  cylindrical,  and  divided  into  five  parts  at  the  top,  and  has 
two  or  more  pairs  of  opposite  bracts,  or  short,  pointed  leaves  at  the 
base.  The  flower  has  five  broad  petals  with  notched  edges.  Each 
petal  has  a  long,  slender  claw  extending  down  into  the  calyx. 

The  pink  has  usually  ten  stamens  and  two  pistils,  which  are 
curved  outward. 

*  For  a  complete  list  of  the  members  of  the  Lily  Family,  and  of  other 
families,  also  for  descriptions  of  them,  see  Gray's  School  and  Field  Book  of 
Botany,  or  Wood's  Class-book  of  Botany. 


PLANTS.  261 

The  seed-vessel  is  one-celled,  containing  many  seeds. 
The  Pink  Family  [Caryophyllacece]  has  many  beautiful  members, 
but  none  of  them  are  useful  either  as  food  or  medicine. 

CHINA  PINK. — [Dianthus  Chinensis.]  The  flower  has  large  petals, 
toothed,  and  of  various  colors.  Native  of  China ;  common  here .  in 
gardens. 

SWEET-WILLIAM,  or  BUNCH  PINK.  —  [Dianthus  barbatus.]  The 
flowers  grow  in  a  flat-topped  cluster.  They  are  red,  or  whitish,  and 
sometimes  variegated. 

CARNATION,  or  CLOVE-PINK. — [Dianthus  caryophyllus.]  This  spe- 
cies is  supposed  to  be  the  parent  of  all  the  beautiful  varieties  of  car- 
nation pinks.  Their  flowers  are  white,  red,  crimson,  scarlet,  purple, 
yellow,  and  variegated.  Flowers  are  solitary. 

MULLEIN  PINK. — [Lychnis  coronaria.~\  Native  of  Europe;  culti- 
vated here.  The  plant  is  covered  with  a  cottony  substance,  which 
the  ancients  used  for  lamp-wicks.  It  has  ten  stamens  and  five  pis- 
tils. Flowers  crimson,  or  purple.  It  has  some  resemblance  to  Corn- 
cockle, a  plant  found  in  wheat-fields. 

RAGGED  ROBIN. — [Lychnis  Flos  -  cuculi.]  Sometimes  called  the 
"  Cuckoo-lychnis."  The  flowers  are  of  a  light  pink  color ;  the  petals 
are  cleft  into  long,  sharp  teeth ;  calyx  brown. 

SCARLET  LYCHNIS. — [Lychnis  Chalcedonica.]  Common  flower  in 
country  gardens.  It  grows  in  a  flat-topped  cluster;  flowers  small 
and  bright  scarlet.  Petals  are  indented.  Native  of  Russia. 

VIRGINIA  CATCHFLY. — [Silene  Virginica.]  The  name  of  "  Catch- 
fly  "  was  given  from  the  sticky,  downy  substance  which  covers  it, 
and  by  which  small  insects  are  often  caught.  This  species  has  long, 
slender  petals,  cleft  at  the  ends,  and  of  a  crimson  color.  Found  in 
the  open  woods  of  the  West  and  South. 

GARDEN  CATCHFLY. — [Silene  Armeria.]  A  garden  flower,  some- 
times called  "  Sweet-william."  Stem  about  one  foot  high,  branch- 
ing, and  bearing  bunches  of  bright  pink,  or  purplish  flowers.  Pet- 
als notched. 

ROYAL  CATCHFLY. — [Selene  regiaJ]  A  large  flower,  of  beautiful 
scarlet  color,  when  cultivated.  Found  on  prairies  from  Ohio  south. 
Grows  three  feet  high. 

BOUNCING  BET. — [Saponaria  officinalis.]  Sometimes  called  "  Soap- 
wort,"  from  the  fact  that  the  juice  of  its  root  and  stem  will  form  a 
soap-like  lather.  Flower  of  pale  pink  color,  usually  double  ;  petals 
notched.  Often  found  wild  by  the  roadside. 


262  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

CHICKWEED.— [Stellaria  media.]  Sometimes  called  "  Starwort." 
The  well-known  garden  weed  which  is  given  to  Canary  birds.  It 
has  a  small,  white  flower.  Leaves  egg-shaped. 

SPURREY. — [Spergula  arvensis.]  Leaves  grass-like,  growing  in  a 
circle  around  the  stem.  Has  an  open  cluster  of  small,  white  flowers. 
Found  in  grain-fields.  Sometimes  cultivated  in  Europe  for  feeding 
sheep. 

The  Rose  Family  [Rosacecs]  contains  our  most  beautiful 
flower,  the  Rose,  of  which  there  are  several  hundred  varieties ;  also, 
our  most  delicious  fruits,  as  the  apple,  pear,  quince,  peach,  plum,  cher- 
ry, apricot,  nectarine,  strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  almond.  The 
plants  belonging  to  this  order  embrace  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs. 

The  Rose  Family  contains  three  great  divisions  or  groups,  viz., 
The  Rose  Group,  The  Plum  Group,  The  Pear  Group. 

The  Rose  Group  comprises  shrubby,  prickly  bushes,  with  leaves 
of  the  feathered  or  pinnate  form,  each  composed  of  from  three  to  nine 
egg-shaped  or  ovate  leaflets.  Its  blossoms,  in  a  wild  state,  have  five 
petals,  many  stamens,  and  several  pistils.  "When  cultivated,  the  num- 
ber of  petals  becomes  numerous,  the  flowers  beautiful,  and  of  various 
tints,  from  white  to  a  rich  crimson. 

The  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  strawberry  belong  to  the  Rose 
group.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  form  of  their  flowers,  their  parts, 
etc.,  resemble  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  Wild  Rose. 

DAMASK-ROSE. — [Rosa  Damascena.]  This  beautiful  rose  is  a  native 
of  the  countries  about  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  has  many  petals, 
with  colors  varying  from  a  delicate  roseate  hue  to  a  rich  rose-red. 
It  is  very  fragrant,  and  its  petals  are  used  for  making  "  attar  of 
roses."  The  bush  grows  from  three  to  five  feet  high.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens.  The  low  monthly  rose  is  a  variety  of  this 
kind. 

WILD  ROSE. — [Rosa  lucida.]  This  rose  is  sometimes  called  the 
"  Dwarf  Wild  Rose."  It  grows  on  a  bush  from  one  to  three  feet 
high,  in  fields  and  in  woods.  The  flowers  are  small,  of  a  pale,  red 
color,  and  grow  in  clusters  of  two  or  three.  The  leaves  have  a  shin- 
ing appearance,  and  grow  with  five  to  nine  on  a  stem. 

SWEETBRIER. — [Rosa  ruMginosa.]  This  is  sometimes  called  "  Eg- 
lantine." The  sweetbrier  is  a  stout,  prickly  shrub,  from  four  to  six 
feet  high,  growing  in  fields  and  by  roadsides.  The  flowers  are  usu- 
ally solitary,  with  five  rounded  petals,  of  a  light  rose-color,  and  fra- 


PLANTS.  263 

grant.  The  leaves  are  small,  and  usually  have  sacs  or  glands  on  the 
under  side,  containing  an  aromatic  fragrance,  which  gives  a  delight- 
ful perfume  when  the  leaves  are  rubbed. 

FRENCH  ROSE. — [Mosa  Gallica.]  This  is  the  common  red-rose  of 
gardens,  from  which  have  originated  some  three  hundred  varieties : 
among  these  are  the  "  Carmine,"  "  Carnation,"  "  Velvet,"  "  Nosegay," 
"York  and  Lancaster,"  etc.  The  numerous  inner  petals  of  the  rose 
are  developed  from  the  stamens  by  cultivation.  The  dried  petals 
of  this  rose  are  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  The  pure  tincture  of 
rose,  used  for  flavors  in  cooking,  is  made  from  the  petals  of  this  rose. 

BLACK  RASPBERRY.  —  [Riibus  occidentalis.}  This  is  sometimes 
called  "  Thimbleberry."  The  black  raspberry  bush  grows  along  the 
borders  of  fields,  and  consists  of  a  group  of  curved,  slender  stems, 
from  four  to  six  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  egg-shaped,  growing  in 
clusters  of  three.  Flowers  white,  with  five  petals.  Fruit  purplish 
black,  of  hemispherical  shape,  and  when  picked  has  a  deep,  hollow 
place  where  it  was  attached  to  the  fruit  stem. 

BLACKBERRY.  —  [Rubus  mllosus.]  This  well-known  bush  grows 
from  one  to  six  feet  high,  consisting  of  slender  stems,  covered  with 
strong  prickles.  Leaves  egg-shaped,  from  three  to  five  in  a  group. 
Flowers,  with  live  white  petals,  often  growing  in  a  cluster.  Fruit 
black,  globular,  or  slightly  conical. 

STRAWBERRY.  —  [Fragaria  vesca.]  This  well-known  plant  has 
white  flowers,  with  five  petals.  The  seeds  grow  on  the  surface  of 
the  fruit. 

•  Pear  Group. — The  Pear  group  includes  the  pear,  apple,  quince, 
chokeberry,  mountain-ash.  The  blossoms  have  five  roundish  petals, 
of  a  white  or  pink  color,  and  grow  in  clusters. 

PEAR. — [Pyrus  communis.]  This  delicious  fruit  is  a  native  of  Eu- 
rope ;  but  in  its  wild  state  the  fruit  is  small  and  unpalatable.  Flow- 
ers scentless,  five  white  petals,  with  purple  anthers.  Fruit  tapers 
toward  the  stem. 

APPLE.  —  [Pyrus  mains.]  The  common  apple  was  originally 
brought  from  Europe.  The  tree  grows  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
high.  Leaves  long,  egg-shaped.  Flower -buds  pinkish;  the  five 
wide-spread  petals  are  partly  white,  with  tints  of  pink  and  light 
purple,  and  fragrant.  There  are  also  several  native,  wild  species  of 
apple  in  this  country. 

QUINCE. — [  Cydonia  vulgaris.]  This  is  a  small  tree,  so  named  from 
a  city  of  Crete,  from  whence  it  was  obtained.  The  oval  leaves  have 


264:  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

a  cottony  surface  beneath.  The  fruit  has  a  similar  surface.  It  is 
hard,  pear-shaped,  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  is  used  for  preserves. 
The  flowers  have  five  petals,  yellowish  white,  or  very  pale  rose-color. 
The  quince  is  supposed  to  be  the  "  Golden  Apple,"  celebrated  in 
ancient  fable. 

Plum  Group. — The  Plum  group  includes  the  plum,  peach,  nectar- 
ine, apricot,  cherry,  and  almond.  The  blossoms  are  white,  or  rose- 
colored,  and  consist  of  five  petals,  and  from  fifteen  to  thirty  stamens. 
The  fruit  is  fleshy,  and  contains  a  stone,  or  nut.  The  kernel  of 
some  of  this  group,  as  the  peach  and  almond,  contains  prussic  acid, 
a  deadly  poison. 

PLUM. — [Primus  domesticaJ]  Said  to  be  a  native  of  Italy.  Tree 
about  fifteen  feet  high.  Leaves  dark  green.  Flowers  solitary,  with 
five  whitish  petals,  twenty  to  thirty  stamens,  with  yellowish  anthers. 
Fruit  has  a  smooth  skin  of  various  colors,  a  fleshy  pulp  covering 
a  small,  flattened  stone,  with  sharp  edges.  Prunes,  as  used  on  the 
table,  are  large  plums  dried. 

PEACH.  —  [Persica  vulgaris.']  This  well-known  tree  was  named 
from  its  native  country,  Persia.  Its  leaves  are  lance-shaped.  The 
flowers  appear  before  the  leaves,  with  five  spreading,  rose-colored 
petals.  The  skin  of  the  fruit  has  a  woolly  coating.  •  The  fruit  con- 
tains a  rough  "  stone,"  or  nut,  which  encloses  the  seed.  There  are 
many  varieties. 

CHERRY. —  [Prunus  cerasus.]  This  is  named  from  Cerasus,  an  an- 
cient town  in  Turkey,  from  whence  the  garden-cherry  is  supposed 
to  have  originated.  Flowers  large,  with  five  petals,  white,  tinged' 
faintly  with  purple.  The  leaves  and  flowers  appear  about  the  same 
time.  Fruit  round  and  reddish,  has  a  fleshy  pulp  covering  a  round 
stone,  or  "  pit." 


POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

Crowfoot  Family. — [Ranunculacec&.~\  This  family  contains  many 
dangerous  plants.  All  the  members  possess  an  acrid  or  bitter  juice, 
which  is  watery  or  colorless,  and  more  or  less  narcotic ;  while  some 
of  them  are  absolutely  poisonous.  In  some  of  these  plants  their 
poisonous  properties  may  be  dissipated  by  a  boiling  heat,  or  by  dry- 
ing in  the  sun. 

Their  leaves  are  usually  palmately  or  ternately  lobed,  and  without 
stipules.  Many  plants  cultivated  for  ornament  belong  to  this  fain- 


PLANTS.  265 

ily,  as  Anemone,  Larkspur,  Buttercup,  Christmas  -  rose,  Columbine, 
Monk's-hood,  Clematis,  etc.  Owing  to  the  poisonous  character  of 
some,  and  the  suspicious  properties  of  others,  it  would  be  well  to  be 
cautious  in  relation  to  all  the  plants  of  this  family. 

CROWFOOT. — [Ranunculus  sceleratus.]  This  plant  grows  in  wet 
places,  from  Georgia  to  Canada.  It  grows  about  fifteen  inches  high, 
and  blossoms  in  June  and  July.  It  bears  a  small,  bright  yellow 
flower,  with  five  petals  growing  singly  on  a  slender  stem.  The  seed- 
vessels  form  an  erect,  rounded  cone.  Leaves  are  three-parted.  The 
juice,  when  fresh,  is  very  acrid,  and  will  raise  blisters  upon  the  skin. 
It  is  a  poison  when  taken  internally.  Cattle  avoid  this  plant  when  it 
is  fresh. 

MONK'S-HOOD. — [Aconitum  NapellusJ]  This  plant  is  common  in  old 
gardens  and  waste  places.  It  grows  from  three  to  four  feet  high, 
bearing  a  cluster  of  blue,  helmet-shaped  flowers.  The  name  Monk's- 
hood  was  given  from  the  shape  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  flower. 
The  leaves  are  deeply-cut,  and  several  times  divided,  after  the  man- 
ner of  those  of  the  common  larkspur.  The  seed-vessel  consists  of 
three  lobes.  The  root  is  very  poisonous,  tuberous,  or  shaped  some- 
what like  that  of  the  horse-radish,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mis- 
taken in  the  early  spring,  before  the  leaves  appear.  It  should  not. 
even  be  touched  by  the  tongue.  This  plant  is  also  called  Wolf's- 
lane,  because  in  Europe  it  is  used  for  poisoning  wolves. 

BANEBERRY. — [Actea  spicata.]  This  plant  is  found  in  rich  woods ; 
grows  about  two  feet  high ;  leaflets  ovate  and  sharply  cleft ;  blos- 
soms in  May  and  June ;  berries  red  or  purplish,  and  about  the  size 
of  currants ;  seeds  smooth  and  flattened.  Berries  poisonous. 

BLACK  HELLEBORE  (CHRISTMAS-ROSE). — [Helleborus  niger.~\  This 
plant  received  the  name  of  Christmas-rose  because  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  England  it  blossoms  in  the  winter  and  early  spring.  It  has 
large  single  white  flowers,  which  turn  pinkish,  then  green.  In  form 
the  blossom  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  strawberry.  The  leaves 
are  pedate,  and  of  a  shining  green.  It  is  cultivated  in  gardens, 
though  not  very  common  in  this  country.  Its  injurious  properties 
should  be  known,  that  its  serious  effects  may  be  avoided. 

Parsley  Family.  —  POISON  -  HEMLOCK.  —  [  Conium  maculatum.] 
Found  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  by  roadsides,  in  waste 
ground,  and  swampy  places.  Grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high ; 
lias  very  smooth  stems,  with  purplish  spots ;  leaves  are  lance-shaped 
and  coarsely-toothed,  sometimes  pointed ;  flowers  white  and  small, 

12 


206  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

growing  in  close  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the  stems,  like  the  water- 
hemlock;  blossoms  in  July  and  August;  fruit  somewhat  egg-shaped 
and  ribbed.  Root  a  deadly  poison. 

The  entire  plant  emits  a  very  offensive  odor  when  bruised.  Sup- 
posed to  be  the  plant  which  the  ancient  Greeks  used  to  destroy  the 
statesmen  of  whom  they  were  tired.  This  plant  was  introduced 
into  this  country  from  Europe. 

WATER-HEMLOCK. — [Cicuta  maculata.~]  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
our  country,  and  is  found  in  swamps  and  wet  places ;  even  within 
the  limits  of  villages  and  cities  it  is  far  too  common  for  safety.  It 
is  a  tall,  rank  herb,  growing  from  four  to  six  feet  high.  Its  stems 
are  hollow,  branching,  smooth,  and  streaked  with  purple  and  brown ; 
the  flowers  are  white,  growing  in  clusters,  which  spread  out  like 
an  umbrella.  The  veins  of  the  compound  leaves  terminate  in  the 
notches ;  it  blossoms  in  July  and  August.  Fruit  or  seeds  nearly 
round,  with  ribs,  the  channels  between  which  are  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  and  filled  with  oily  matter. 

'  Children  often  mistake  it  for  sweet-cicely,  which  belongs  to  the 
same  family.  Its  herbage  is  dangerous  to  cattle.  The  fleshy  root  is 
fatally  poisonous.  It  is  said  that  a  drachm  of  the  fresh  root  has 
killed  a  boy  in  less  than  two  hours  after  eating  it. 

FOOL'S-PARSLEY. — [^Ethusa  Cynapium.']  This  plant  was  originally 
introduced  from  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  found  about  cultivated 
grounds,  but  usually  in  waste  places.  Grows  from  one  to  two  feet 
high,  having  a  hollow  stem,  and  dark-green,  lance-shaped  leaves. 
The  flowers  are  white,  growing  much  like  those  of  the  hemlock  and 
wild  parsnip  ;  blossoms  in  July  and  August.  Fruit  or  seed  nearly 
as  broad  as  long,  with  prominent,  straight  ribs.  This  plant  is  not 
only  poisonous,  but  has  a  fetid  odor.  Leaves,  seeds,  and  roots  poisonous. 

WILD  PARSNIP.  —  [Pastinaca  Sativa.}  Grows  wild  in  fields,  by 
fences,  roadsides,  etc.  Has  a  tall,  grooved,  branching  stem ;  leaves 
pinnate  and  deeply  cut.  Flowers,  which  appear  in  July,  are  yellow 
and  small,  growing  in  fine  clusters,  at  the  ends  of  seven  or  eight 
spreading  umbels.  Fruit  flat,  oval,  with  a  broad,  single-winged  mar- 
gin. The  root  is  spindle-shaped,  and  well  known  in  its  cultivated 
state  as  a  sweet-flavored  esculent ;  but  in  its  wild  state  the  root  be- 
comes smaller  in  size,  hard,  acrid,  and  poisonous. 

Lobelia  Family. — LOBELIA  (INDIAN  TOBACCO). — \L6belia  inflata.] 
This  plant  is  found  in  dry.  open  pastures,  and  by  roadsides.  It 
grows  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  high.  Leaves  elliptical,  hairy. 
Flowers  small,  pale  blue,  and  growing  in  leafy  spikes.  Blossoms 


PLANTS.  267 

from  July  to  September.  Leaves  and  flowers  grow  from  the  same 
axil.  Juice  milky  and  acrid.  This  plant  is  used  as  a  medicine,  but 
its  poisonous  qualities  render  it  very  dangerous. 

Figwort  Family. — FOXGLOVE. — [Digitalis  purpurea.]  Cultivated 
in  gardens  for  its  showy  flowers ;  also  by  the  Shakers  and  others  for 
its  leaves,  which  are  dried  and  used  as  medicine  ;  but,  owing  to  its 
poisonous  properties,  this  plant  should  be  used  only  by  those  having 
a  clear  knowledge  of  it.  The  plant  grows  from  three  to  four  feet 
high  ;  flowers  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  rather  hairy 
within,  and  beautifully  spotted  with  deep  purple  dots,  surrounded 
by  white  rings.  The  common  name — "Foxglove" — is  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  an  old  Saxon  word,  Folks-glove.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  Asia. 

Fine  Family. — YEW.  —  Ground  Hemlock.  [Taxus  Canadensis.} 
American  Yew.  [Taxus  laccata.~\  English  Yew.  The  American 
Yew  is  a  small  evergreen  shrub,  from  two  to  four  feet  in  length, 
growing  as  a  straggling,  prostrate  bush,  never  forming  an  ascending 
trunk.  It  is  found  in  thin,  roc'ky  soil  on  hill-sides,  near  streams, 
and  along  moist  banks,  particularly  in  the  shade  of  evergreen-trees. 
Leaves  nearly  an  inch  long,  arranged  in  two  opposite  rows  on  each 
side  of  the  branchlets.  The  blossoms  are  like  scaly  buds,  and  ap- 
pear in  May.  Fruit  is  of  a  coral  red,  and  displays  a  black  seed  at 
the  top. 

The  leaves  of  this  plant  and  the  Hack  seeds  of  the  berries  contain 
poison.  The  pulp  of  the  berries  is  not  considered  unwholesome, 
but  it  is  dangerous  to  swallow  the  black  seeds. 

Mezeremn  Family.  —  MEZEREUM.  —  [Daphne  mezereum.]  This 
shrub  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  common  "  Moosewood," 
or  "  Leatherwood,"  and  is  also  noted  for  its  fibrous,  tough  bark. 
It  is  cultivated  for  ornament;  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high; 
leaves  of  a  delicate  green ;  flowers  of  a  purplish  rose-color,  growing 
around  the  stems.  These  are  succeeded  by  scarlet  berries  which  are 
poisonous.  The  root  and  bark  are  acrid  and  caustic.  Blooms  early 
in  spring.  A  native  of  Europe. 

Sumac  Family.  —  POISON-IVY.  —  [Ehus  toxicodendron.]  (Some- 
times known  as  "Poison-oak,"  and  occasionally  as  "Poison-vine.") 
A  plant  common  in  low  grounds,  climbing  on  fences,  over  rocks, 
and  ascending  trees.  The  variety  which  ascends  trees,  from  twenty 
to  forty  feet  in  height,  is  usually  designated  as  RJius  radicans.  Its 
leaves  are  generally  nearly  entire.  The  stem  of  this  variety  some- 
times attains  the  size  of  one  or  two  inches  in  thickness.  It  is  cov- 


268  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ered  with  a  grayish,  scaly  bark,  and  fastens  itself  to  the  object  upon 
which  it  climbs  by  numerous  bunches  of  rootlets  thrown  out  along 
the  stem. 

The  leaves  of  the  poison  -  ivy  are  of  a  shining  green  color,  and 
change  in  autumn  to  a  bright  yellow,  or  orange,  or  a  mahogany ; 
they  always  grow  in  groups  of  three;  are  ovate,  with  margins  vari- 
ously shaped,  from  nearly  entire  to  undulate,  dentate,  and  cut-lobed, 
and  are  downy  underneath.  Flowers  are  small,  greenish  yellow, 
and  grow  in  long,  loose  clusters.  Blooms  in  May  and  June. 

The  juice  of  this  plant  is  very  poisonous  to  the  touch.  It  causes  an 
eruption  of  the  skin,  accompanied  by  an  intolerable  itching  and 
burning  sensation. 

The  poison-ivy  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  Virginia  creeper, 
a  harmless  plant  which  often  is  cultivated  and  known  as  "  wood- 
bine." Attention  to  the  following  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
each  vine  will  prevent  these  mistakes. 

Virginia  Creeper — leaves  grow  in  groups  of  five  ;  are  large,  oblong, 
and  pointed,  margins  sharply  dentate ;  color,  dark  green,  changing 
in  autumn  to  a  bright  crimson ;  berries  dark  blue,  smaller  than 
pease ;  stem  fastens,  in  climbing,  by  tendrils. 

Poison-ivy — leaves  grow  in  groups  of  three  ;  are  ovate,  with  margins 
variously  shaped ;  color,  shining  green,  changing  in  autumn  to  a 
bright  yellow  or  orange ;  berries  vary  from  a  dull  white  to  a  pale, 
shining  brown ;  are  about  the  size  of  small  pease ;  stem  clings  by 
bunches  of  small  rootlets.  Poison -ivy  is  found  from  Georgia  to 
Canada. 

POISON  SUMAC.  —  [Wins  venenata.}  (Sometimes  called  "  Poison 
Dogwood.")  A  shrub  or  small  tree,  common  in  swamps,  growing 
from  six  to  eighteen  feet  high ;  bark  gray,  and  generally  smooth. 
Each  leaf-stem  has  seven,  nine,  eleven,  or  thirteen  green  leaflets,  ar- 
ranged in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  red  stem,  with  a  single  one 
at  the  end.  The  leaflets  are  smooth,  oblong,  abruptly  pointed,  mar- 
gins entire,  from  two  to  three  inches  long  and  about  half  as  wide. 

The  color  of  the  leaves  changes  in  autumn  from  green  through  a 
bright  yellow  to  crimson  and  scarlet ;  but  the  leaf-stem,  or  mid-vein, 
remains  an  intense  red  during  all  these  changes.  The  flowers  are 
small  and  greenish,  growing  in  alternate  clusters  on  a  long  stem. 
The  fruit  is  of  a  greenish  yellow,  dry,  smooth,  and  shining,  and 
about  the  size  of  small  pease.  Blossoms  appear  in  June ;  berries 
ripen  in  September. 

The  entire  plant  is  very  poisonous  to  the  touch  or  taste,  and  even 
taints  the  air  around  it,  so  that  some  persons  become  poisoned  by 


PLANTS.  269 

simply  passing  near  it  -when  in  a  state  of  perspiration.     The  poison 
produces  painful  swelling,  inflammation,  and  intense  itching. 

The  Mountain  Sumac,  a  small  shrub,  growing  in  dry,  rocky  places ; 
bearing  a  dark-green  leaf,  shining  on  the  upper  surface ;  greenish 
red  flowers,  in  dense  clusters,  on  a  long  stem  ;  fruit  seed-like,  red 
and  hairy ;  is  not  poisonous. 

Nettle  Family. — STINGING  NETTLE. — [Urtica  dioica.']  Common 
in  waste  places  and  by  roadsides;  grows  from  two  to  three  feet 
high ;  stem  four-sided ;  leaves  from  two  to  three  inches  long  and 
about  one-half  as  wide,  and  downy  underneath ;  have  short  stems 
attached  to  opposite  sides  of  the  stalk ;  margins  deeply  serrate. 
Blossoms  from  June  to  August.  The  entire  plant  is  covered  with 
stiff,  tubular  hairs,  which  transmit  a  venomous  fluid  when  pressed, 
causing  a  stinging  and  itching  sensation. 

Nightshade  Family. — THORN-APPLE,  or  STRAMONIUM. — James- 
town weed.  {Datura  stramonium.}  A  common  plant,  having  a  rank 
odor,  growing  in  waste  places,  among  rubbish,  etc.  The  stem  is 
about  three  feet  high,  smooth,  hollow,  and  branching.  The  general 
form  of  the  leaves  is  ovate,  but  the  margins  are  cut  in  sharp  angles, 
with  gashes  rounded  at  their  bases.  The  blossom  is  of  a  cream- 
white  color,  funnel-shaped,  with  a  long  tube,  somewhat  plaited,  and 
a  border  fine-toothed.  The  general  form  of  the  flower  resembles 
that  of  the  morning-glory.  The  seed-vessel,  or  pod,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  apple,  somewhat  egg-shaped,  and  covered  with 
spikes.  It  contains  numerous  flat  seeds.  Every  part  of  the  plant 
is  poisonous. 

COMMON  NIGHTSHADE — BLACK  NIGHTSHADE. — [Solatium  nigrum.] 
An  ugly,  weed-like  plant,  growing  about  rubbish,  in  shaded  places, 
with  angular  branches  and  smooth  stems,  which  commonly  rest  on 
the  ground.  Leaves  usually  appear  as  if  partly  eaten  by  insects. 
Flowers  white,  with  a  yellow  conical  centre,  five-parted,  grown  in 
small,  open  clusters,  on  long  stems.  Blossoms  during  July  and  Au- 
gust. Berries  are  bluish  black,  round,  and  vary  in  size  from  large 
cherries  to  small  pease.  These  are  poisonous.  The  plant  has  a  dis- 
agreeable odor. 

DEADLY  NIGHTSHADE.  —  [Atropa  belladonna.]  A  plant  which 
grows  about  five  feet  high,  branching  near  the  ground ;  the  stem 
and  large  leaves  have  a  purplish  tinge ;  leaves  narrow,  oval,  and 
pointed,  growing  in  pairs  from  opposite  sides  of  the  stem,  with  a 
second  pair  of  small  leaves  growing  at  the  base  of  the  lower  large 
leaves.  Blossoms  are  somewhat  bell-shaped,  of  a  pale  purple,  grow- 


270  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ing  singly,  also  in  pairs,  from  the  stem  at  the  foot  of  the  leaves,  and 
nodding.  Berries  are  about  the  size  of  cherries,  and  change  from  a 
green  color  to  a  glossy  black ;  are  filled  with  a  purple  juice.  These 
are  exceedingly  poisonous.  The  entire  plant  is  dangerous.  It  is 
sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  may  occasionally  be  found 
growing  in  other  places.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe ;  is  used  as  a 
medicine. 

HENBANE. — [Hyoscyamus  niger.]  A  tall  weed  growing  about  rub- 
bish of  old  houses,  roadsides,  and  sometimes  in  old  gardens.  Stem 
round,  branching,  and  about  two  feet  high.  Leaves  large,  oblong, 
pointed,  and  cut  into  sharp  lobes,  or  deeply  toothed.  Blossoms  of 
a  dull  yellow  color,  strongly  veined  with  purple ;  they  grow  in  one- 
sided spikes  at  the  ends  of  the  stems,  from  the  foot  of  the  leaves. 
The  flower-cup  is  urn-shaped.  The  plant  is  hairy,  sticky,  of  a  sea- 
green  hue,  and  emits  an  offensive  odor.  Tlie  entire  plant  is  poisonous. 

BITTERSWEET. — [Solanum  dulcamara.]  A  shrubby  climber ;  stem 
branching  several  feet  in  length ;  found  on  moist  banks,  near  low 
ground,  and  around  dwellings.  The  lower  leaves  are  entire,  the 
upper  ones  halberd-shaped.  Blossoms  bluish  purple,  drooping,  with 
five  pointed  petals  surrounding  an  orange-colored,  conical  centre. 
Each  division  or  segment  of  the  flower  has  two  green  spots  at  its 
base.  Blossoms  from  June  to  September.  Berries  are  oval,  bright 
red,  and  poisonous. 

Poppy  Family. — CELANDINE. — [Chelidonium  majus.]  This  plant 
grows  by  roadsides,  fences,  etc.,  about  two  feet  high  ;  stem  is  branch- 
ing, and  very  brittle.  Blossoms  have  four  petals,  are  yellow,  some- 
what resemble  the  buttercup.  Leaves  consist  of  two  to  four  pairs 
of  leaflets,  with  an  odd  one  at  the  end.  Seed-pods  an  inch  long. 
When  broken,  the  plant  exudes  a  yellow,  strong-smelling  juice,  which 
is  poisonous.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to  warts,  to  destroy  them. 

Arum  Family.  —  JACK-IN-THE-FULPIT — INDIAN-TURNIP.  —  [ Arisce- 
ma  triphyllum.~]  A  common  plant  in  rich,  low  grounds  in  woods. 
The  fleshy  stem  of  this  plant  divides  into  two  parts  near  the 
ground;  each  branch  bearing  three  oval,  pointed  leaflets  at  its  end. 
Between  the  branches  grow  the  blossom  and  the  fruit.  The  fleshy 
spike,  around  which  the  berries  grow,  is  enclosed  in  a  sheath-like 
leaf,  green  without,  but  within  variegated  with  stripes  of  dark  pur- 
ple alternating  with  pale  green.  The  form  of  this  sheath  is  some- 
what like  that  of  a  Calla  lily,  but  with  the  point  of  the  sheath  bend- 
ing over  the  cup  containing  the  spadix  or  spike.  When  ripening, 
the  berries,  growing  around  the  fleshy  spike  in  an  oblong  cluster, 


PLANTS.  271 

change  from  a  green  color  to  a  bright  scarlet.     Blooms  in  May. 
Fruit  ripens  in  August  and  September. 

This  plant  has  a  bulbous  or  conn-like  stem  in  the  ground  some- 
what of  a  turnip  shape,  from  the  upper  part  of  which  there  grow 
numerous  fibre-like  roots.  The  fleshy  portion  of  the  plant,  when  in 
a  green  state,  is  exceedingly  acrid.  Neither  the  bulbous  root  nor 

the  berries  should  be  tasted. 

« 

Heath  Family. — SHEEP  LAUREL. — [Kalmia  angustifolia.~]  Sheep- 
poison,  Lamb-kill,  are  names  sometimes  applied  to  it.  This  shrubby 
plant  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  in  damp  grounds;  leaves 
narrow,  oblong,  from  one  to  two  inches  long,  margin  entire,  surface 
smooth,  color  pale  green.  Flowers  purplish  crimson ;  corolla  short, 
five-toothed,  slightly  bell-shaped  ;  grow  in  clusters  ;  blossoms  from 
May  to  July.  Leaves  believed  to  be  poisonous  to  sheep. 

Mushroom  Family.  —  FLY  MUSHROOM.  —  [Agaricus  muscarius.~\ 
The  mushrooms  spring  up  wherever  there  is  sufiicient  heat  and 
dampness,  in  rich  soil  or  heaps  of  decayed  vegetable  rubbish.  First 
there  appears  a  little  knob,  within  which  the  stalk  is  gradually 
formed.  By-and-by  the  outer  skin  bursts,  and  leaves  a  fleshy  stem 
supporting  a  fleshy  cap,  which,  gradually  enlarging,  tears  the  lower 
skin  which  united  it  to  the  column,  and  opens  like  an  umbrella. 

The  Fly  Mushroom,  with  its  crimson  cap  dotted  with  white,  is 
beautiful  but  dangerous,  for  it  is  very  poisonous.  It  is  said  that 
when  steeped  in  milk  it  will  kill  flies. 

Some  varieties  of  mushroom  are  used  for  food;  these  are  usually 
distinguished  by  their  piiik  gills,  and  by  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is, 
however,  quite  unsafe  for  any  person  not  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
appearance  and  odor  of  the  edible  mushroom  to  venture  tasting  any 
of  this  tribe. 

Need  of  Illustrations. — Those  who  do  not  know  the  ap- 
pearance and  noxious  qualities  of  poisonous  plants  are  liable  to 
serious  accidents  from  tasting  or  handling  them.  Ignorance  in 
relation  to  this  matter  is  especially  dangerous  to  children.  These 
plants  cannot  be  easily  recognized  by  those  who  possess  no  ac- 
quaintance with  botany,  from  descriptions  alone.  It  is  therefore 
exceedingly  important  that  the  young  should  be  made  sufficiently 
familiar  with  their  appearance,  by  means  of  carefully-drawn  pict- 
ures, to  be  able  to  distinguish  such  plants  from  harmless  ones, 
and  thus  prevent  liabilities  to  those  accidents  which  occur  from 


272  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

handling  and  tasting  these  noxious  members  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 

It  is  believed  that  a  proper  use  of  illustrations  of  poisonous 
plants,  and  of  these  descriptions,  will  enable  any  person  to  attain 
the  necessary  acquaintance  to  protect  himself  from  the  dangerous 
effects  of  such  plants. 

A  series  of  tw*enty-four  illustrations  of  the  poisonous  plants* 
described  here  has  been  carefully  prepared,  to  represent  both  their 
shapes  and  colors.  Each  illustration  is  on  a  card  of  the  size  of 
common  album  photographs,  and  may  be  procured  by  mail. 

Illustrations*  of  all  the  leaves,  flowers,  roots,  etc.,  described  in 
the  preceding  pages,  have  also  been  published  on  cards  of  the 
same  size. 


*  Published  by  L.  Prang  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 


MINERALS. 


MINEKALS. 

"  Tongues  in  trees — books  in  the  running  brooks — 
Sermons  in  stones— and  good  in  everything." 

SPECIAL  attention  is  directed  to  minerals,  and  a  few 
simple  facts  given  here  concerning  them,  for  the  purpose 
of  pointing  out  still  another  field  in  which  children  may 
be  led  to  extend  their  observations  with  pleasure  and 
profit,  and  to  increase  both  their  powers  of  learning  and 
their  knowledge  of  the  world  in  which  they  live.  The 
chief  aim  now  is  to  show  how  teachers  may  lead  their 
pupils  to  take  such  notice  of  the  common  objects  which 
may  be  found  wherever  they  go,  as  to  make  them  desire 
to  know  what  the  different  stones  have  to  tell  about  them- 
selves, and  about  that  part  of  the  world  where  they  are 
found. 

Children  may  be  easily  induced  to  notice  differences 
between  the  smooth,  rounded  pebbles  by  the  brook-side, 
or  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  or  sea,  and  the  rough,  irregu- 
lar stones  that  are  found  near  a  ledge  of  rocks.  "When 
they  ask  what  made  the  stones  so  smooth,  tell  them  how 
the  swift-running  water  of  the  stream  or  the  rolling  waves 
of  the  sea  rub  the  stones  against  each  other,  rolling  them 
over  and  over,  and  thus  wear  off  the  corners  and  make 
them  smooth.  Tell  them  that  their  toy-marbles  are  made 
by  breaking  stones  into  small  blocks,  then  placing  a  large 
number  of  them  together,  and  by  means  of  machinery 
rolling  them  against  each  other,  round  and  round,  while 
they  are  kept  wet  with  water,  and  thus  are  worn  smooth 

12* 


274:  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

and  to  the  shape  of  marbles.  Ever  after  these  children 
will  understand  why  some  stones  are  smooth,  and  they 
will  take  more  interest  in  looking  at  them. 

Prepare  Pupils  to  Observe  Minerals. — Before  send- 
ing your  pupils  out  to  look  at  stones  and  rocks,  give  them 
one  or  two  lessons  to  teach  them  how  to  distinguish  dif- 
ferences in  them.  Give  the  pupils  good  specimens  of 
quartz^  of  mica,  of  feldspar,  and  of  granite,  to  examine. 

Quartz. — Lead  them  to  notice  the  very  hard,  clear,  glassy 
qualities  of  the  quartz  ;  that  it  cannot  be  scratched  with 
a  knife  or  a  file;  that  it  \vill  scratch  glass;  that  it  breaks 
into  irregular  pieces  —  then  let  them  try  to  find  quartz 
in  a  piece  of  granite. 

Mica.  —  Let  the  pupils  notice  the  bright,  glistening, 
tough,  elastic,  and  almost  transparent  substance — mica / 
that  it  may  be  easily  split  into  leaves  thinner  than  paper ; 
that  it  may  be  easily  scratched  with  a  knife  —  then  let 
them  find  this  substance  in  a  piece  of  granite. 

Feldspar. — Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  the  white  or  flesh- 
colored  substance — -feldspar — which  breaks  with  a  bright, 
even  surface,  and  in  two  directions;  that  it  is  not  quite 
so  hard  as  quartz,  yet  too  hard  to  be  scratched  with  a 
knife;  that  it  may  be  scratched  by  the  quartz — then  let 
them  find  the  feldspar  in  a  piece  of  granite. 

Now  the  pupils  will  be  prepared  to  go  into  the  fields 
and  along  the  roadside  to  look  for  each  of  these  minerals 
— quartz,  mica,  feldspar — and  for  the  rock  called  granite, 
which  is  composed  of  these  three.  When  they  have  gath- 
ered their  specimens,  the  teacher  may  assist  them  in  cor- 
recting any  mistakes  made  in  distinguishing  either  of  the 
minerals. 

Sandstone. — At  a  subsequent  lesson  tell  the  pupils  that 
quartz,  when  pulverized  or  made  fine,  forms  sand.  Let 


MINERALS.  275 

them  examine  coarse  sand,  and  notice  the  fine  grains  of 
quartz  in  it.  Show  them  a  specimen  of  sandstone,  and 
let  them  see  that  it  is  made  up  of  small  grains  of  sand ; 
that  by  scraping  the  sandstone  with  a  knife  the  small 
grains  can  be  separated ;  that  these  grains  are  not  all  of 
the  same  size,  nor  all  composed  of  the  same  glass-like 
substance ;  that  some  of  them  are  softer  than  others,  and 
seem  like  a  kind  of  hard  cement  which  fastens  all  these 
grains  into  a  solid  stone.  Now  let  the  pupils  examine 
the  sand  and  gravel  in  a  brook,  or  on  the  shore  of  a  lake, 
or  the  beach  of  the  ocean,  and  be  told  that  sand  and 
gravel  are  formed  by  the  motion  of  the  water,  which 
causes  stones,  pebbles,  gravel,  and  sand  to  move  about, 
and  thus  keep  the  pieces  continually  rubbing  against  each 
other,  and  grinding  them  smaller  and  finer. 

The  pupils  may  now  be  told  that  sandstone  is  formed 
by  layers  of  fine  sand  deposited  in  deep  water,  and  then 
pressed  together  by  the  weight  of  the  sand  and  water 
more  and  more  firmly  from  year  to  year;  and  that  after 
a  very  long  period  of  years  these  layers  of  sand  become 
solid  rocks. 

Calcite.  —  A  common  form  of  crystallized  calcite  is 
called  dog -tooth -spar.  Calcite,  in  a  rock  form,  is  lime- 
stone. When  burnt,  it  is  carbonate  of  lime  (the  material 
that  is  slacked  in  water  and  used  for  making  mortar). 
Calcite  is  easily  distinguished  from  feldspar  and  other 
minerals  by  its  effervescence  with  acid ;  by  its  being 
easily  scratched  with  a  knife ;  by  its  infusibility  in  the 
hottest  fire ;  and  by  its  cleavage  in  three  directions,  and 
with  rhombic  faces. 

Dolomite. — When  limestone  contains  magnesia  mixed 
with  the  lime,  it  is  called  magnesian  limestone,  or  dolomite. 
Dolomite  and  calcite  appear  much  alike ;  but  dolomite 
does  not  effervesce  freely  with  acid  unless  the  acid  be  hot. 


276  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Chalk  is  limestone.  Marble  is  limestone ;  but  some- 
times it  is  of  the  magnesian  kind.  Calcareous  rocks  are 
kinds  of  limestone.  Limestone,  in  its  various  forms,  has 
dull  colors,  from  white — through  gray,  yellow,  red,  and 
brown — to  black.  It  is  very  abundant  in  this  country, 
except  in  the  form  of  chalk.  Chalk  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  England  and  France. 

Show  your  pupils  specimens  of  calcite  in  the  forms  of 
limestone,  marble,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  crystals.  Lead 
them  to  experiment  with  these,  and  observe  the  several 
characteristics  by  which  this  mineral  may  be  distinguished 
from  feldspar  and  other  minerals.  They  will  then  be 
prepared  to  collect  specimens  of  rocks,  to  examine  them, 
experiment  with  them,  and  determine  whether  they  be- 
long to  either  of  the  classes  of  minerals  or  rocks  already 
named — quartz,  mica,  feldspar,  sandstone,  calcite,  etc.* 

These  and  similar  lessons  on  minerals  may  be  extended 
so  as  to  include  those  to  be  found  within  the  regions  that 
may  be  visited  by  your  pupils.  Indeed,  these  and  other 
lessons  intended  to  introduce  children  to  nature,  and  in- 
duce them  to  become  interested  in  studying  the  charm- 
ing pages  illustrated  with  real  minerals  and  rocks,  plants, 
blossoms,  and  fruits,  and  all  the  varieties  of  animal  form 
and  life,  should  begin  at  the  home  of  the  young  learner, 
and  with  things  within  his  easy  observation. 

That  you  may  do  this  intelligently,  make  yourself  ac- 
quainted with  the  character  of  the  rocks  and  minerals  in 
the  vicinity  of  your  school ;  then  teach  your  pupils  how 
to  distinguish  or  know  the  different  kinds,  and  tell  them 
where  each  may  be  found.  By  such  means  many  boys 
have  been  led  away  from  idleness  and  bad  associations, 

*  Teachers  and  older  pupils  who  desire  to  learn  more  about  minerals 
and  rocks  will  find  the  following  books  very  useful :  Hooker's  Mineralogy 
and  Geology;  The  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told,  by  Dana;  Science  Primers,  on 
Geology,  and  on  Physical  Geography. 


MINERALS.  277 

and  the  foundations  laid  for  observing  and  studious  hab- 
its, and  lives  of  great  usefulness. 

Try  what  virtue  there  is  in  developing  a  love  for  min- 
erals, plants,  and  animals,  and  in  after  years  many  will 
bless  you  in  remembrance  of  valued  instruction,  and  the 
numerous  sources  of  happiness  unfolded  to  them. 


278  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 


CHEMISTRY ;    OR,  ELEMENTS   OF   SUBSTANCES. 

FROM  the  lessons  under  the  head  of  "Properties  of  Objects" 
you  learned  to  distinguish  three  classes  of  substances — Animal, 
Vegetable,  Mineral.  The  succeeding  lessons  on  animals  and  on 
plants  furnished  you  additional  facts  concerning  the  first  two  of 
these  groups.  I  now  propose  to  direct  your  attention  still  fur- 
ther to  the  class  called  Minerals,  and,  while  guiding  your  obser- 
vations upon  this  group,  to  point  out  some  new  facts  which  will 
give  you  a  better  knowledge  of  all  kinds  of  substances. 

You  have  learned  that  a  mineral  has  no  life,  no  feeling,  no  mo- 
tion, and  does  not  take  food ;  and  yet  the  mineral  supplies  food 
to  the  vegetable  world,  and  the  vegetable  world  furnishes  the 
food  for  the  animal  world.  Thus,  while  this  substance  has  no 
life  of  its  own,  it  supplies  the  materials  for  life  to  the  other  two 
classes. 

How  can  this  be  true,  when  minerals  are  such  things  as  stones, 
sand,  clay,  iron,  lead,  silver,  etc.  ?  you  may  inquire.  I  will  try  to 
explain  this  matter. 

All  the  words  that  you  know  and  can  read  or  write,  and  all 
the  words  in  the  books,  are  made  up  of  letters.  When  you  learn 
to  write  a  word,  you  know  what  letters  make  the  word,  and  how 
they  are  arranged.  In  our  language  there  are  only  twenty-six 
letters,  and  these  enable  us  to  make  up  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  words.  These  letters  are  the  elements  of  our  written 
language. 

Minerals,  like  written  words,  are  made  up  of  elements.  All 
the  matter  that  constitutes  all  the  rocks,  stones,  iron,  gold,  silver, 
lead,  clay,  ice,  and  water  in  the  world  is  made  up  of  elementary 
substances,  which  are  the  letters  of  nature.  There  are  about  six- 
ty-three of  these  mineral-letters.  As  the  letters  of  our  language, 
by  different  combinations,  form  different  words,  so  these  mineral 
elements,  by  different  combinations,  form  different  substances. 


MINERALS.  279 

Some  of  these  mineral-letters  cannot  be  seen  when  alone,  or 
not  united  with  one  or  more  other  letters.  This  group  of  min- 
eral-letters we  call  gases.  Some  of  these  letters  can  be  seen,  felt, 
and  tasted ;  these  are  called  liquids  and  solids.  Some  of  the  sol- 
ids we  call  metals,  and  some  we  call  minerals. 

I  will  write  the  names  of  a  few  of  these  mineral -letters  in 
groups,  and  thus  show  you  what  some  of  them  are  called,  and  to 
which  group  they  belong : 

MINERAL-LETTERS. 
Gases.  Solids.  Minerals. 

Oxygen,  Carbon,  Iron, 

Nitrogen,  Sulphur,  Silver, 

Hydrogen,  Phosphorus,  Potassium, 

Chlorine,  Silicon,  Sodium, 

Fluorine.  Iodine.  Calcium. 

These  mineral  -  letters  are  commonly  called  Elementary  Sub- 
stances. All  the  matter  that  constitutes  the  rocks,  land,  water, 
trees,  grain,  and  animals  of  the  whole  earth  is  made  up  of  these 
letters  of  nature.  The  names  of  only  fifteen  of  them  are  given 
above,  yet  these  elementary  substances  constitute  more  than  one- 
half  of  all  the  matter  in  the  world,  including  animals,  vegetables, 
and  minerals.  One  of  these  elements — oxygen  —  is  the  most 
abundant  one  in  nature.  It  comprises  one -fifth  of  the  air  we 
breathe,  eight-ninths  (by  weight)  of  the  water  we  drink,  more 
than  two-fifths  of  the  land  we  walk  on,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
food  we  eat,  as  well  as  of  the  clothing  we  wear,  of  the  houses  we 
live  in,  and  of  the  tools  we  use. 

In  our  written  language  the  letters  form  words,  the  words  are 
combined  into  sentences,  and  the  sentences  into  language  as  a 
whole.  In  nature  the  mineral-letters,  or  simple  substancest  form 
the  mineral-words  of  nature ;  and  these  words  of  nature  are  com- 
bined into  the  three  great  sentences  of  nature — minerals,  vegeta- 
bles, animals  ;  and  these  three  groups,  or  books,  of  nature  com- 
prise the  whole  world  of  matter.  A  knowledge  of  these  elements, 
and  of  their  laws  of  combination,  is  called  Chemistry.  By  a  care- 


280  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ful  study  of  this  science  you  may  learn  the  composition  and  nat- 
ure of  all  the  materials  of  which  the  world  is  made  up. 

As  in  our  language  some  words  contain  only  one  letter,  or  ele- 
ment, while  some  words  contain  two  letters,  others  three,  four, 
five,  or  more  letters,  so  it  is  in  these  words  of  nature,  some  sub- 
stances contain  only  one  letter,  or  element,  some  contain  two  ele- 
ments, some  three,  four,  five,  or  more  elements.  As  each  word 
in  our  written  language  is  complete  in  itself,  and  has  a  definite 
meaning,  so  each  of  these  words  of  nature  is  complete  of  itself, 
and  is  known  as  a  definite  substance,  with  its  own  distinct  prop- 
erties. 

I  will  now  give  you  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  words  of  nature, 
and  tell  you  what  letters  or  elements  form  them  : 

Substances  with  one  Element.— Silver,  iron,  sulphur, 
carbon,  or  charcoal,  are  each  words  containing  only  one  letter,  and 
the  name  of  the  letter  in  each  case  is  the  name  of  the  substance, 
just  as  the  names  of  the  letters  A,  I,  and  O  are  the  names  of  the 
three  words  which  they  constitute. 

Substances  with  two  Elements. — Air,  water,  sand,  and 
salt  are  each  words  containing  only  two  different  letters,  or  ele- 
ments. The  name  of  each  element  in  these  substances  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Air  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  ;  Water  is  com- 
posed of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  ;  Sand  is  made  up  of  oxygen  and 
silicon  ;  Salt  is  made  up  of  sodium  and  chlorine. 

Substances  with  three  Elements.— The  following  sub- 
stances contain  each  three  elements,  or  letters,  as  follows :  Sugar 
contains  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  ;  Starch  contains  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon  /  Glycerine  contains  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon  ;  Vinegar  contains  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  one  of  these  substances  contains 
the  same  elements.  In  some  written  words  the  same  letters  are 
repeated,  so  in  some  substances  the  same  elements  are  repeated 
several  times.  Sugar  contains  more  than  twice  as  much  oxygen 
and  carbon  as  starch  does.  Glycerine  contains  less  of  each  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  and  carbon  than  either  sugar  or  starch,  but  more 
of  each  of  these  elements  than  vinegar. 


MINERALS.  281 

Substances  with,  four  Elements. — Each  of  the  follow- 
ing substances  contains  four  elements,  as  follows:  Gun-cotton  is 
composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  ;  Cream  of 
Tartar  is  composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  potash; 
Bronze  is  composed  of  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead. 

Substances  with  five  Elements. — Each  of  the  follow- 
ing substances  contains  five  elements,  as  follows :  Gunpowder  is 
composed  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  carbon,  and  potassium  ; 
Alum  is  composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  aluminum,  potassium,  and 
sulphur. 

As  in  our  written  language  you  must  know  how  the  several 
letters  are  combined,  and  how  many  times  any  or  each  of  those 
letters  are  repeated  in  the  same  word,  so  in  these  words  of  nature 
you  must  learn  how  these  simple  substances  are  combined,  and 
how  many  times  each  is  used  in  the  same  substance  before  you 
can  understand  how  these  combinations  of  the  same  elements  can 
produce  such  different  substances.  All  of  these  facts  about  the 
combinations  of  elementary  substances  to  form  all  things  that  we 
can  see,  smell,  taste,  or  feel,  you  may  learn  by  the  study  of  chem- 
istry.* 

A  knowledge  of  this  science  is  useful  in  all  the  occupations  of 
life,  and  is  indispensable  to  the  chemist,  the  physician,  and  to  suc- 
cess in  many  kinds  of  manufacturing.  It  is  valuable  to  the  farm- 
er, to  the  merchant,  to  the  miner,  and  the  house-keeper. 

*  Teachers  and  students  will  find  the  following  books  useful  for  elemen- 
tary instruction  on  this  subject:  Hooker's  First  Book  of  Chemistry;  also 
Hooker's  Second  Book  of  Chemistry,  or  Science  for  the  School  and  Family; 
and  the  Science  Primer  of  Chemistry. 


282  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


OCCUPATIONS   AND   TEADES. 

ALL  who  are  to  become  actors,  and  not  mere  lookers- 
on  in  the  world,  should  be  so  instructed  that  they  may 
understand  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  most  important 
things  and  occupations  around  them.  Children  like  to 
learn  additional  facts  about  things,  places,  and  occupations 
of  which  they  have  seen  and  know  but  little ;  but  to  so 
learn  that  their  knowledge  shall  become  of  practical  value, 
they  need  to  be  guided  by  parents  and  teachers.  Among 
the  most  useful  lessons  learned  are  those  which  the  real 
teacher  prepares  the  pupils  to  understand,  and  stimulates 
them  to  learn  by  their  own  observation  and  experience 
outside  of  the  school-room. 

Children  who  have  had  their  attention  thus  directed  to 
different  occupations  will  thereby  gain  knowledge  that 
will  prove  useful  to  them  in  many  ways  in  later  years. 
When  the  boy  comes  to  decide  upon  the  business  for  his 
life,  he  will  have  something  to  aid  him  in  determining 
what  he  would  like  to  do. 

The  boy  whose  attention  has  been  specially  directed  to 
the  work  performed,  and  to  the  articles  produced  by  the 
different  occupations,  will  learn  readily  the  duties  of  .his 
position.  He  will  be  able  to  perform  them  with  such  in- 
telligence as  to  command  better  wages  than  one  whose 
education  has  not  been  thus  practical. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  following  lessons,  facts,  and  sugges- 
tions to  teachers  will  aid  in  accomplishing  a  work  of  great 
value  to  their  pupils.  The  successful  teacher  aims  to  con- 
nect the  lessons  of  the  school-room  with  the  children's  ex- 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  TKADES.  283 

periences  of  out-of -school  life,  thus  making  the  instruction 
interesting,  practical,  and  most  effective.  The  lessons 
about  what  people  do  furnish  excellent  opportunities  for 
accomplishing  this  purpose. 

Play  Exercises. — Simple  exercises  might  be  commenced 
with  quite  young  pupils,  and  made  the  means  of  training  them 
in  the  use  of  language.  They  could  be  introduced  under  some 
such  titles  as  the  following :  "  Plays  at  House-keeping,"  "  Plays 
at  Store-keeping,"  "  Plays  at  House-building ;"  and  thus,  in  aid 
of  instruction,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  that  characteristic  of 
childhood  which  leads  the  young  to  want  to  play  in  imitation  of 
what  they  see  older  people  do. 

Suppose  the  girls  play  "  Set  a  Supper-table."  One  might  say, 
"I  will  put  on  the  table-cloth;"  another,  "I  will  put  on  the 
plates ;"  others,  "  I  will  put  on  the  knives  and  forks ;"  "  I  will 
get  the  cups  and  saucers;"  "I  will  make  the  tea;"  "I  will  get 
the  bread,  and  cut  it;"  "I  will  bring  the  butter;"  "I  will  bring 
the  cake,  and  cut  it ;"  "  I  will  put  on  the  cheese ;"  "  I  will  get  the 
teaspoons ;"  "  I  will  put  on  the  preserves ;"  "  I  will  put  the  nap- 
kins by  the  plates;"  "I  will  place  the  chairs  around  the  table;" 
"  Let  me  bring  the  cream  and  sugar  for  the  tea ;"  "  I  will  bring 
the  water  and  the  tumblers." 

Each  pupil,  in  another  exercise,  might  say  what  she  would  like 
for  supper,  or  breakfast,  or  dinner,  according  to  the  meal  that 
was  being  represented.  The  exercise  might  be  varied  by  each 
telling  what  to  put  on  the  table  (appropriate  to  the  given  meal), 
as  if  directing  a  servant  to  do  it. 

When  the  setting  of  the  table  has  been  completed,  the  teacher 
might  preside,  and  request  each  pupil  at  the  play-dinner  to  tell 
what  kind  of  meat,  vegetables,  etc.,  she  would  like.  By  this 
means  many  useful  lessons  in  table-manners  may  be  taught.  The 
exercise  of  good  judgment  and  tact  by  the  teacher  will  render 
such  exercises  exceedingly  interesting  and  profitable  to  children. 

The  boys  might  play  "  Keeping  Grocery."  Let  one  pupil  rep- 
resent a  customer,  the  next  one  the  grocer,  the  next  a  customer, 
the  next  the  grocer,  etc.,  somewhat  as  follows:  "Have  you  nice 


284:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

eating-apples  ?"  "  Yes  ;  would  you  like  some  ?"  "  I  will  take 
two  quarts." 

"  Please  give  me  two  pounds  of  your  best  tea."  "  Here  is 
your  tea ;  the  price  is  one  dollar  and  a  half  for  the  two  pounds." 

"What  is  the  price  of  your  best  butter?"  "Twenty -five 
cents."  "  I  will  take  two  pounds." 

"How  much  do  you  ask  for  good  potatoes?"  "Twenty  cents 
a  peck."  "  You  may  send  me  one  peck." 

"  Please  give  me  three  and  a  half  pounds  of  powdered  sugar." 

"  I  would  like  a  pound  of  crackers." 

"  I  wish  half  a  pound  of  cheese,"  etc.,  etc. 

During  these  exercises  the  pupils  are  supposed  to  speak  in 
turn,  or  by  permission  of  the  teacher,  after  expressing  their  read- 
iness by  holding  up  a  hand. 

The  range  of  appropriate  topics  may  be  increased  as  the  pupils 
become  familiar  with  the  plan  of  proceeding.  These  exercises 
may  be  made  a  means  both  of  recreation  and  useful  instruction 
at  the  same  time,  and  may  be  introduced  from  time  to  time,  say 
once  a  week,  in  some  form,  until  the  pupils  are  able  to  take  up 
lessons  of  a  more  advanced  character,  in  which  a  wider  range  of 
observation  will  be  developed. 

Older  pupils  should  have  more  advanced  lessons,  which  might 
be  conducted  somewhat  in  the  following  manner  : 

"What  People  Do. — To-day  we  will  talk  about  what  people 
do  to  earn  a  living.  You  know  that  some  people  keep  stores, 
and  sell  things ;  some  have  shops,  and  make  things ;  some  print 
books ;  some  bind  books ;  some  sell  books ;  some  make  clothes ; 
some  make  furniture ;  some  make  wagons ;  some  make  bread  and 
cake ;  some  teach  school ;  some  preach ;  some  go  to  see  people 
when  they  are  sick ;  some  make  and  sell  medicines ;  some  supply 
us  with  meat ;  some  build  houses ;  some  raise  wheat,  corn,  and 
other  things  for  our  food ;  and  many  people  do  other  kinds  of 
work  for  a  living.  We  call  that  which  people  do  for  a  living 
their  business,  or  occupation. 

The  Names  of  Occupations  shall  be  our  lesson  for  to-day.  I 
will  write  the  word  occupations  on  the  blackboard,  and  as  each 


OCCUPATIONS. 


285 


pupil  in  turn  names  some  occupation,  I  will  write  the  word  under 
this  on  the  blackboard.  The  pupils  may  copy  these  words  on 
their  slates. 

[The  teacher  writes  the  words  as  given  by  the  pupils,  arranging 
them  in  columns.  At  the  close  of  the  exercise  many  of  the  words 
in  the  following  list  will  have  been  written  :] 

OCCUPATIONS. 


Farmer, 

Merchant, 

Cooper, 

Dentist, 

Gardener, 

Milliner, 

Turner, 

Druggist, 

Miller, 

Dress-maker, 

Jeweller, 

Editor, 

Baker, 

Mason, 

Saddler, 

Printer, 

Grocer, 

Carpenter, 

Sailor, 

Paper-maker, 

Butcher, 

Glazier, 

Musician, 

Bookbinder, 

Tailor, 

Painter, 

Teacher, 

Bookseller, 

Hatter, 

Upholsterer, 

Clergyman, 

Lithographer, 

Tanner, 

Cabinet-maker, 

Physician, 

Engraver. 

Shoemaker, 

Blacksmith, 

Lawyer, 

When  the  pupils  have  mentioned  all  the  occupations  they  can 
think  of,  instead  of  telling  them  the  names  of  others,  the  teacher 
may  request  them  to  notice  what  they  see  people  working  at, 
after  they  go  home  from  school. 

For  the  second  lesson  on  occupations,  let  the  pupils  take  their 
slates,  and  each  one  write  the  names  of  all  the  occupations  that 
he  can  remember.  To  ascertain  what  names  have  been  written, 
and  which  pupil  has  the  greatest  number,  one  pupil  may  read 
his  list,  and  each  other  pupil  check  on  his  own  slate  the  names 
read,  with  a  cross  thus  x  for  each  name  read,  that  he  has  writ- 
ten. When  the  pupil  has  finished  reading  his  list,  let  those  who 
have  other  names  read  them,  and  finally  have  a  complete  list 
written  on  the  blackboard. 

As  this  exercise  affords  excellent  practice  in  spelling,  it  may  be 
repeated  two  or  three  times  with  profit.  During  the  repetition 
of  the  exercise,  each  pupil  should  write  his  list  without  copying 
from  other  pupils.  As  a  conclusion,  ascertain  which  pupil  has 


286 


MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 


written  the  most  names  of  occupations,  and  which  one  has  spelled 
the  greatest  number  correctly. 

For  a  subsequent  lesson,  let  the  pupils  choose  one  of  the  occu- 
pations named  as  a  subject  for  a  lesson  that  shall  require  a  more 
careful  observation  concerning  it.  Suppose  the  pupils  choose 
that  of  the  tailor.  The  teacher  may  write  the  word  Tailor  on 
the  blackboard,  and  the  following  heads : 


"What  he  uses. 
Garments  made. 


"What  he  does. 
Names  of  their  parts. 


Request  each  pupil  to  write  these  heads  on  his  slate,  leaving 
spaces  for  several  words  under  each,  and  then  to  write  names  of 
things  used,  work  done,  garments  made,  and  of  their  parts  under 
the  proper  head.  Let  the  lists  formed  by  the  pupils  be  com- 
pared as  before,  and  a  complete  list  placed  on  the  blackboard, 
which  might  be  nearly  like  the  following : 


What  he  uses. 

Measure, 

Cloth, 

Shears, 

Needles, 

Thread, 

Wax, 

Thimble, 

Goose, 

Board, 

Water. 

Garments  made. 

Pantaloons, 

Vest, 

Coat, 

Overcoat, 

Cloak. 


TAILOR. 

What  he  does. 

Finds  the  size, 

Cuts, 

Sews, 

Makes  clothes, 

Fastens  the  seams, 

Makes  the  thread  smooth, 

Pushes  the  needle, 

Presses  the  seams, 

Holds  the  cloth  for  pressing, 

Moistens  the  seams. 

Parts  of  garments. 


Back, 

Front, 

Collar, 

Cuff, 

Sleeve, 

Leg, 

Button, 

Button-hole, 

Pocket, 

Skirt. 

OCCUPATIONS.  287 

Exercises  with  these  lists  might  be  repeated  two  or  three  times, 
until  the  pupils  become  familiar  with  the  spelling  of  each  word. 

The  lesson  might  be  extended  by  requesting*  the  pupils  to 
give  the  names  of  the  kinds  of  cloth  used  by  the  tailor,  as  beaver, 
cassimere,  doeskin,  broadcloth,  satinet,  melton,  tweed,  flannel,  velvet, 
corduroy,  duck,  satin,  serge,  silk,  silesia,  hair-cloth. 

Subsequently  the  pupils  might  answer  the  following  questions, 
orally  or  in  writing :  What  do  tailors  measure  ?  Why  do  they 
measure  ?  What  do  they  cut  ?  When  do  they  baste  ?  What  do 
they  press?  Why  do  they  press?  etc.  Where  do  tailors  obtain 
their  cloth  ?  What  do  they  produce  ?  How  do  they  procure 
their  food  ? 

At  another  time  the  trade  of  a  shoemaker  may  be  chosen  as 
the  subject  of  the  lesson,  and  then  the  blackboard  might  contain 
something  like  the  following : 

SHOEMAKER. 
What  he  uses.  What  he  does. 

Cowhide,  calf-skin,  Measures,  cuts,  pastes,  lasts, 

Morocco,  sole-leather,  Pegs,  tacks,  sews,  stitches, 

Knife,  awl,  Fits,  trims,  foots,  taps, 

Float,  tacks,  Mends,  caps,  half-soles, 

Wax,  shoe-thread,  Pounds  leather, 

Pincers,  pegs,  nails,  Soaks  leather, 

Last,  strap,  hammer.  Blacks,  trims,  polishes. 

Parts  of  a  shoe.  Parts  of  a  boot. 

Toe,  heel,  sole,  Leg,  front,  or  vamp, 

Shank,  quarters,  Heel,  toe,  instep,  shank, 

Tongue,  lining,  insole.  Counter,  seam,  straps. 

Kinds  of  Boots,  Shoes,  etc. — Heavy  boots,  riding-boots, 
fine,  calf,  patent-leather,  Congress  gaiters,  Oxford  ties,  shoes,  slip- 
pers. 

What  do  shoemakers  measure  ?  cut  ?  paste  ?  peg  ?  sew  ? 

Why  do  they  measure  ?  paste  ?  peg  ?  sew  ? 


288  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Why  do  they  sew  instead  of  peg  ? 

Why  do  they  hammer  leather  ? 

Why  do  they  use  wax  ? 

Where  do  they  obtain  leather  ? 

What  is  leather  made  from  ? 

Who  makes  the  leather  ? 

What  do  shoemakers  produce  ? 

How  do  they  procure  food  and  clothing  ? 

It  is  important  that  the  teacher  shall  so  conduct  these  lessons 
as  to  make  them  profitable  exercises  in  spelling  and  in  the  use 
of  language. 


OTHER   LESSONS  ON   OCCUPATIONS. 

FOR  the  purpose  of  aiding  teachers  in  preparing  other 
lessons  on  trades  and  occupations,  the  following  lists  of 
materials  and  implements  used,  kinds  of  work  done,  and 
articles  produced,  are  given  under  appropriate  heads,  with 
suggestions  as  to  methods  of  giving  the  lessons.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  these  lists,  etc.,  will  be  arranged  by  each  teach- 
er so  as  to  adapt  the  work  to  each  special  class  of. pupils. 
Let  the  teacher  take  the  materials,  profit  by  the  sugges- 
tions, but  make  each  lesson  for  his  own  class. 

Allow  me  to  add  in  this  connection  that  these  lessons 
will  become  much  more  interesting  to  the  pupils,  as  well 
as  more  profitable,  if  the  trade  or  occupation  is  illustrated 
by  suitable  pictures.  Excellent  illustrations  have  been 
prepared  for  purposes  of  teaching,  which  represent  tools 
used,  persons  at  work  with  them,  and  articles  produced  by 
each  of  the  following  trades  and  occupations  :* 


*  Praiiffs  Aids  for  Object-teaching — Trades  and  Occupations,  illustrated  in 
colors ;  each  picture  22  by  14  incbes ;  with  a  Manual  of  Directions,  by  N.  A. 
Calkins. 


OCCUPATIONS. 


289 


Carpenter, 
Blacksmith, 
Shoemaker, 
Tinsmith, 

Tailor, 
Baker, 
Gardening, 
The  Kitchen, 

Printer, 
Lithographer, 
The  Farm-yard, 
Hay-making. 

What  he  uses. 

Axe, 

Plough, 

Harrow, 

Hoe, 

Spade, 

Shovel, 

Crowbar, 

Oxen, 

Scythe, 

Cradle, 

Rake, 

Pitchfork, 

Farming-mill, 

Bags, 

Baskets, 

Ladder, 

Horses, 

Wagon, 
Chain. 


FARMER. 
What  he  does. 

Chops,  splits, 

Turns  up  soil, 

Makes  soil  fine, 

Plants, 

Digs  holes, 

Moves  earth  and  grain, 

Lifts  stones,  etc., 

Draw,  cart,  and  plough, 

Cuts  grass, 

Cuts  grain, 

Collects  grass  and  grain, 

Lifts  hay  and  grain, 

Cleans  grain, 

Holds  grain, 

Carries  fruit, 

Climbs, 

Ride,  plough,  draw  wagon, 

Carries  loads, 

Fastens. 


What  he  raises. 

Wheat, 

Corn, 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Rye, 

Pease,  Beans, 

Buckwheat, 

Hay, 

Potatoes, 

Turnips, 

Pumpkins, 

Fruits, 

Sheep, 

Cattle, 

Hogs, 

Hens,  geese, 

Turkeys, 

Wool, 

Flax. 


What  does  the  farmer  produce?  How  does  he  obtain  his 
clothing  and  implements  for  work?  Why  does  the  farmer 
plough,  sow,  plant,  mow,  thresh  ? 

The  teacher  should  ask  the  several  questions  attached  to  each 
occupation,  and  talk  with  the  pupils  concerning  them,  that  they 
may  obtain  correct  ideas  as  to  the  importance  of  each  kind  of 
work. 

13 


290  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


CARPENTER. 

Tools  used  for  Cutting. — Axe,  adze,  chisels,  gouges,  shaving- 
knife,  spoke-shave,  hatchet,  saw,  broad-axe. 

Tools  used  for  Boring. — Augers,  gimlets,  bits-and-brace,  brad- 
awl. 

Tools  used  for  Pounding.  —  Hammer,  mallet,  beetle,  sledge- 
hammer. 

Tools  used  for  Measuring  and  Marking. — Rule,  square,  bevel, 
gauge,  compasses,  level,  plumb-line,  scratch-awl,  chalk-line. 

Tools  used  for  Smoothing. — Planes,  scraper,  rasp,  file,  sand- 
paper. 

Materials  used. — Timber  for  sills,  posts,  beams,  plates,  rafters, 
girders,  joists,  braces,  studs,  scaffold.  Lumber:  plank,  boards, 
siding,  or  clapboards,  lath,  shingles. 

Parts  of  a  Building. — Sides,  ends,  walls,  partitions,  roof,  eaves, 
•windows,  doors,  shutters,  window-sill,  door -sill,  base,  balcony, 
floors,  ceiling,  cornice,  frieze,  panel,  moulding,  stairs,  etc.  . 

Tools.  Their  Uses. 

Rule For  measuring. 

Square To  form  right  angles. 

Gauge To  make  parallel  lines. 

Level To  find  horizontal  position. 

Screw-driver For  driving  screws. 

Brad-awl For  making  small  holes. 

Kinds  of  Work  done. — Hewing,  sawing,  mortising,  bevelling, 
mitering,  scarfing,  sheathing,  siding,  scribing,  furring,  framing, 
shingling,  pinning. 

What  is  meant  by  hewing?  sawing?  mortising?  bevelling? 
mitering?  scarfing?  sheathing?  scribing ?  furring ?  etc. 

What  do  carpenters  produce? 

How  do  they  procure  food  and  clothing? 


OCCUPATIONS.  291 

BLACKSMITH. 
What  he  uses.  Why  he  uses  it. 

Forge Place  to  work  with  iron. 

Coal To  heat  the  iron. 

Bellows To  make  the  fire  very  hot. 

Tongs For  holding  hot  iron. 

Anvil To  lay  the  hot  iron  on. 

Hammer For  pounding  the  hot  iron. 

Punch For  making  holes  in  hot  iron. 

Vise For  holding  iron  firmly  while  shaping  or  filing  it. 

Rasp Coarse  file. 

Drill For  boring  holes  in  cold  iron. 

Chisel For  cutting  iron. 

•n  ft    •  j  A  chisel-like  instrument,  with  a  bent  shank  and 

(      long  handle,  for  paring  hoofs  of  horses. 
-g      k  j  Table-like  shelf  at  the  side  of  the  shop  for  small 

(      tools.     The  vise  is  fastened  to  it. 

Kinds  of  Work  Done. — Blowing,  striking,  welding,  cutting, 
drilling,  tempering,  shoeing,  setting  tire,  ironing  wagons,  etc. 

Articles  Made. — Horseshoes,  nails,  bolts,  nuts,  screws,  braces, 
hammers,  hooks,  chains,  hoes,  axes,  tires,  etc. 

Blacksmiths  blow,  heat,  strike,  weld,  temper. 
What  do  they  blow?  heat?  strike?  weld?  temper? 
Why  do  they  blow  ?  heat  ?  strike  ?  weld  ?  temper  ? 
What  does  the  blacksmith  produce  ? 
How  does  he  procure  food  and  clothing? 


TINSMITH. 

Tools  Used.  —  Shears,  pincers,  pliers,  nippers,  vise,  hammer, 
mallet,  soldering-furnace,  soldering-iron. 

Materials  Used. — Tin,  wire,  sheet-iron,  solder,  rosin,  charcoal, 
copper,  brass,  zinc. 

Articles  Made. — Pails,  pans,  cups,  dippers,  measures,  teapots, 


292  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

coffee-pots,  teakettles,  dishpans,  saucepans,  cans,  boilers,  coal-scut- 
tles, tin  roofs,  etc. 

Tin-ware  is  made  from  thin  sheets  of  iron  covered  with  tin 
by  dipping  the  sheets  of  iron  into  melted  tin  three  or  four  times. 
While  the  tin  metal  remains  on  the  iron  it  protects  the  iron 
from  rust.  Tin  metal  is  harder  than  lead,  but  softer  than  silver. 

What  does  the  tinsmith  produce  ? 

How  does  he  obtain  his  food  and  clothing  ? 

PAINTER. 

What  he  uses. 

For  White  Paint. — White-lead,  zinc-white,  Spanish-white. 

For  Yellow  Paint. — Yellow-ochre,  Naples-yellow,  chrome-yel- 
low, gamboge. 

For  Blue  Paint — Ultramarine,  cobalt -blue,  Antwerp  -  blue, 
Prussian-blue,  indigo,  Berlin-blue. 

For  Red  Paint. — Red-lead,  red-ochre,  madder,  cochineal,  ver- 
milion. 

For  Green  Paint.  —  Chrome -green,  emerald -green,  ScheeleV 
green,  verdigris. 

For  Brown  Paint — Umber,  Terra  di  Sienna,  bistre,  Vandyke- 
brown,  Spanish-brown. 

For  Black  Paint. — Lamp-black,  ivory-black. 

For  Mixing  Paint — Linseed-oil,  spirits  of  turpentine.  Some- 
times the  oil  is  boiled  before  mixing  with  paint ;  sometimes  it  is 
used  in  a  raw  state. 

To  make  the  paint  dry  quickly,  a  little  litharge,  or  sugar  of 
lead,  or  Japan  varnish  is  mixed  with  it. 

Implements  and  Materials  Used. — Paint-stone,  paint-mill  for 
grinding  paint,  pots,  cans,  brushes,  putty,  putty -knife,  pumice- 
stone,  sand-paper,  brushes,  varnish,  ladder,  etc. 

Kinds  of  Work  Done. — Puttying  holes  over  nail-heads,  smooth- 
ing with  sand-paper,  "  killing  knots"  with  shellac,  priming,  paint- 


OCCUPATIONS.  293 

ing,  graining,  marbling,  stippling,  sizing,  varnishing,  frescoing, 
kalsomining,  lettering,  oiling,  etc. 

The  painter  preserves  and  ornaments.  He  does  not  construct 
anything  nor  produce  anything. 

What  has  the  painter  to  sell  ? 

How  does  he  obtain  food  and  clothing  ? 


PRINTER. 

Materials  and  Instruments,  and  their  Uses. 

Type. — For  printing  letters,  words,  and  figures. 

Type-cases.  —  Shallow  drawers,  with  small  compartments  or 
boxes  for  separating  the  different  letters  and  figures. 

Composing-stick. — A  narrow,  oblong  frame,  made  of  iron  or 
steel,  for  holding  type  as  the  compositor  sets  the  letters  in  words 
and  sentences. 

Galley. — An  oblong,  shallow  tray,  usually  with  a  thin  brass 
bottom,  and  sides  of  wood.  When  the  compositor  has  set  his 
stick  full,  he  places  the  lines  on  the  galley. 

Imposing-stone. — A  smooth  stone  slab,  on  which  the  type  from 
the  galley  is  placed,  to  be  made  up  into  pages  and  forms,  ready 
for  printing.  When  books  are  stereotyped,  the  pages  are  made 
up  on  a  galley,  then  placed  in  a  form  and  sent  to  the  foundry, 
where  a  mould  is  taken  of  the  face  of  the  pages,  and  thin  plates 
of  type-metal  are  cast,  from  which  the  book  is  printed. 

Chase. — An  iron  frame,  which  is  placed  around  type  on  the 
imposing  -  stone,  and  into  which  the  type  or  matter  is  firmly 
wedged  with  furniture  (narrow  strips  of  wood),  and  quoins  or 
wedges. 

Planer. — A  smooth,  oblong  block  of  hard  wood,  which  is 
placed  upon  the  face  of  the  type  on  the  imposing -stone,  and 
gently  pounded,  to  make  the  surface  even. 

Shooting-stick. — The  piece  of  wood  or  iron  used  in  driving 


294:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  quoins  or  wedges  when  locking  up  the  form.  One  end  is 
placed  against  the  wedge,  and  the  other  is  struck  with  the  mallet. 

Leads. — Thin  strips  of  type-metal  placed  between  the  lines 
of  type  to  separate  them,  so  that  the  print  may  be  read  more 
easily  than  when  the  lines  are  solid. 

Printing-press. — The  machine  on  which  the  form  of  type  is 
placed,  and  by  means  of  which  paper  is  pressed  upon  the  inked 
type  and  printed. 

Platen. — The  part  of  the  printing-press  on  which  the  type 
rests. 

Tympan. — Part  of  the  printing-press ;  a  wooden  frame,  cov- 
ered with  two  folds  of  cloth,  between  which  is  stretched  a  wool- 
len blanket.  The  tympan  carries  the  sheet  of  paper  to  be 
printed,  and  forms  a  soft  surface  over  the  paper,  to  equalize  the 
pressure  upon  the  type. 

Roller. — The  part  of  the  press  that  places  the  ink  on  the  face 
of  the  type. 

Frisket — A  slender  frame  to  hold  the  sheet  of  paper  in  its 
proper  place  on  the  tympan  while  it  is  moved  over  the  type  to  be 
printed. 

Fly. — The  frame  of  narrow,  thin  bars  at  the  back  of  the  press, 
which  places  the  printed  sheets  upon  each  other  in  a  pile. 

Trough. — The  box  of  water  in  which  the  pressman  dampens 
the  paper  to  prepare  it  for  printing. 

Kinds  of  "Work  done  by  the  Printer. — Composing — 
setting  type;  distributing — placing  the  letters  in  their  proper 
boxes,  after  they  have  been  used;  justification  —  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  spaces  uniformly  between  the  words,  until  the 
lines  agree  with  each  other  in  length ;  making-up — adjusting  the 
matter  into  pages  after  it  has  been  set  up  by  the  compositor; 
imposing — placing  the  matter  on  the  imposing-stone,  after  it  has 
been  made  into  pages,  and  enclosing  it  in  a  chase ;  locking-up — 
wedging  the  type  firmly  in  the  chase ;  taking  proof — inking  the 
type,  and  pressing  upon  it  a  sheet  of  damp  paper;  reading  proof 
— having  the  manuscript,  or  copy  from  which  the  compositor 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  TRADES.  295 

set  his  type,  read,  so  as  to  compare  it  with  the  words  in  the 
proof-sheet ;  correcting  proof — unlocking  the  matter,  and  chang- 
ing all  the  words  which  were  not  set  up  correctly.  This  work 
is  done  by  the  compositor.  Revising  the  form — comparing  the 
type  in  the  form  with  the  proof,  after  the  compositor  has  cor- 
rected his  errors  in  setting,  to  see  that  all  the  corrections  have 
been  made.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  a  foreman,  the  man  who 
supervises  the  other  workmen. 

Terms  used  by  Printers.  —  Solid  matter:  type  set  up 
without  leads  between  the  lines.  Leaded  matter :  type  that  has 
leads  placed  between  the  lines.  Live  matter :  type  that  has  been 
set,  but  not  yet  used  for  printing  that  for  which  it  was  set.  Dead 
matter :  type  that  has  been  used  in  printing,  and  is  ready  to  be 
distributed  in  the  cases  again.  Ems :  the  square  of  the  body  of 
a  letter  m  of  each  size  of  type  is  the  measure  for  estimating 
the  amount  of  matter  that  has  been  set  of  that  size.  The  mat- 
ter is  measured  to  see  how  many  square  spaces  of  the  em  size 
the  entire  amount  of  type  set  up  covers.  Compositors  are  paid 
for  setting  type  at  a  fixed  sum  for  each  thousand  ems.  Proof- 
sheet — the  impression  taken  from  the  type  after  it  is  locked  up. 

Names  of  Sizes  and  Kinds  of  Type. 

This  is  Great  Primer  type. 

This  line  is  English  type. 

This  line  is  Pica  type. 

This  line  is  Small  Pica  type. 

This  line  is  Long  Primer  type. 

This  line  is  Bourgeois  type. 

This  line  is  Brevier  type. 

This  line  is  Minion  type. 

This  line  is  Nonpareil  type. 

This  line  is  Agate  type. 

This  line  is  Pearl  type. 

Tbia  line  is  Diamond  type. 

This  line  ll  Brilliant  type. 

Slj'ts  10 


296  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

What  is  writing  ?  What  is  printing  ?  Why  do  people  write  ? 
When  do  they  write  instead  of  print  ?  Why  is  printing  used  in- 
stead of  writing  ? 

How  does  the  printer  obtain  food  and  clothing? 

Each  trade,  or  occupation,  may  be  made  the  subject  of 
two  or  three  lessons.  These  should  be  given  at  such  times 
as  will  afford  the  pupils  abundant  opportunities,  between 
the  time  of  the  first  and  the  last  lesson,  to  gain  infor- 
mation by  personal  observation.  The  development  and 
training  that  results  from  the  experience  of  the  pupils  in 
seeking  facts  relating  to  a  subject,  when  the  facts  are 
sought  from  a  desire  to  know,  rather  than  for  a  lesson 
to  be  recited,  comprise  the  most  valuable  part  of  these 
lessons. 

These  and  similar  lessons  may  be  multiplied  by  the 
teacher  as  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  time  will  permit. 
It  is  not  recommended  that  an  attempt  be  made  to  give 
lessons  upon  all  the  trades  and  occupations  that  can  be 
named,  but  rather  that  each  teacher  shall  select  a  few — 
those  most  suitable  for  the  particular  class  —  and  give 
these,  from  time  to  time,  in  alternation  with  lessons  on 
animals,  or  some  other  subject,  as  a  means  of  connecting 
home  experiences  and  the  daily  observations  of  the  pupils 
with  school  lessons,  thus  tending  to  make  school  instruc- 
tion real  education. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING.  297 


PHYSICAL  TKAINING. 

THE  great  means  of  improving  any  power,  physical  or 
mental,  is  exercise.  In  all  cases,  the  exercise  is  subject  to 
the  same  laws  and  conditions,  and  produces  the  same  re- 
sults. The  first  effect  of  exercise  on  a  muscle  is  to  occa- 
sion the  destruction  of  a  portion  of  the  material  that  com- 
poses it,  and  this  leads  to  an  increased  flow  of  nutritious 
material  to  restore  that  part.  In  this  way  the  repeated 
exercise  of  a  muscle  enlarges  its  size,  and  gives  it  in- 
creased strength  and  power. 

In  like  manner,  the  exercise  of  any  of  our  mental  pow- 
ers, while  causing  the  destruction  of  a  portion  of  the 
nerve  material  of  the  brain,  causes  also  an  additional  flow 
of  nutritious  material  to  that  part,  and  thus  the  mind  is 
improved  and  strengthened  by  the  increased  volume  and 
strength  imparted  to  the  organ  of  the  mind — the  brain. 

The  result  of  a  proper  exercise,  whether  physical  or 
mental,  is  to  increase  the  activity  of  all  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem. Thus,  in  a  rapid  walk  the  mental  powers  are  af- 
fected, and  ideas  flow  more  readily.  At  first  an  increased 
flow  of  blood  is  imparted  to  all  parts  of  the  system ;  and 
it  is  when  the  waste  in  one  particular  part  becomes 
greater  than  the  natural  supply  can  restore,  that  an  addi- 
tional supply  is  drawn  from  other  parts,  thus  depriving 
those  parts  of  their  due  share  of  nutrition,  that  a  feeling 
of  fatigue  is  produced.  Any  bodily  exercise,  long  con- 
tinued, tends  to  produce  mental  fatigue ;  and  long-con- 
tinued mental  exercise  occasions  bodily  fatigue.  Hence 

13* 


298  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

people  who  have  much  physical  labor  feel  a  dislike  to 
great  mental  exercise,  and  those  who  perform  great  men- 
tal labor  are  naturally  disinclined  to  engage  in  active 
physical  exercise. 

We  may  learn  from  a  study  of  physical  training  how 
to  proceed  in  the  training  of  our  mental  powers,  and  also 
how  to  strengthen  the  moral  powers.  Leading  children 
to  observe  and  quietly  practice  what  is  right  will  have 
much  better  effect  than  the  mere  telling  of  the  right  and 
warning  of  the  wrong. 

The  material  upon  which  our  mental  manifestations 
depend  is  the  same  as  that  which  supplies  our  physical 
frame,  and  is  subject  to  the  same  laws,  and  is  nourished 
in  the  same  way.  The  same  arterial  blood  nourishes  all 
parts  of  the  system,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  digestive, 
respiratory,  and  other  functions  of  the  body.  Hence  it 
is  that  a  sound  body  is  necessary  to  a  sound  mind,  and 
soundness  of  mind  is  necessary  to  health  of  body. 

There  are  more  than  five  hundred  muscles  in  the  hu- 
man body,  and  the  great  majority  of  these  are  under  the 
control  of  the  will  power;  yet  from  the  want  of  proper 
training  a  double  force  is  required  to  accomplish  their 
work,  because  they  are  allowed  to  act  in  an  irregular, 
slovenly,  and  awkward  manner.  By  training  the  muscles 
to  act  promptly  under  the  will  power,  the  action  itself 
becomes  more  easy,  and  the  demand  upon  the  nerve  pow- 
er is  correspondingly  less. 

The  effect  of  proper  physical  training  is  to  enable  the 
several  bodily  organs  to  perform  the  greatest  amount 
of  exercise  with  the  greatest  ease  or  the  least  fatigue. 
Physical  education  has  for  its  true  object  the  training 
of  the  various  physical  organs  so  that  they  will  render  a 
ready  and  efficient  service  to  the  mind. 

aAn  important  result  of  physical  exercise  is  that  it 
i  in  parts  health  and  vigor  to  all  parts  of  the  system.  It 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING.  299 

accelerates  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  strengthens  the 
vessels,  increases  the  cutaneous  exhalations,  and  preserves 
the  fluids  in  a  healthy  state.  It  improves  the  appetite, 
quickens  the  digestive  operations,  and  increases  the  heat 
of  the  body.  The  body  is  thus  rendered  capable  of  re- 
sisting colds,  and  fortified  against  the  attack  of  numerous 
diseases."  Even  in  the  cure  of  many  diseases,  physical 
exercise  is  an  important  agent. 

Attention  to  physical  training  for  developing  and 
strengthening  the  body  forms  an  important  part  in  the 
requirements  for  a  complete  plan  of  education.  Both  the 
body  and  the  mind  may  be  educated  by  means  of  such 
exercises  as  will  impart  vigor  and  tone  to  their  respective 
powers  of  action.  Indeed,  health  of  body  increases  the 
vigor  of  the  mind;  and  the  physical  well-being  of  the 
body  cannot  be  neglected  without  impairing  the  powers 
of  mind.  Foremost  among  the  needs  to  secure  a  healthy 
body  are  pure  air  and  an  abundance  of  pleasure-giving 
exercise.  And  foremost  among  the  important  duties  of 
parents,  in  relation  to  their  children,  is  attention  to  the 
securing  of  the  necessary  conditions  for  the  growth  of 
healthy  bodies;  then  the  development  of  a  sound  mind 
may  be  made  to  follow  by  proper  training. 

Were  suitable  physical  exercises  made  an  essential  and 
indispensable  part  of  education  for  both  sexes,  many  dis- 
eases which  are  the  consequences  of  neglected  bodily  de- 
velopment, or  the  result  of  constitutional  debility,  might 
be  prevented,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  mental  faculties 
be  more  fully  developed. 

Were  parents  generally  aware  of  the  great  extent  to 
which  the  seeds  of  disease  are  sown  in  crowded  school- 
rooms, and  the  common  neglect  by  school  officers  and 
teachers  of  those  matters  which  pertain  to  the  physical 
welfare  of  children  in  school,  they  Would  not  submit  to 
such  negligence  in  the  adaptation  of  school-rooms  to  the 


300  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

purposes  for  which  they  are  used  ;  for  not  only  is  the 
ventilation  generally  poor,  but  the  means  for  proper  ex- 
ercise of  the  body  are  not  provided. 

It  is  true  that  in  schools  children  do  practise  singing, 
marching,  and  various  evolutions,  such  as  clapping  hands, 
folding  arms,  standing  and  sitting  alternately,  etc. ;  yet 
these  exercises,  although  found  to  be  of  great  utility,  do 
not  bring  sufficiently  into  action  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  to  answer  the  ends  of  more  distinct  physical  exer- 
cises. Nevertheless  they  indicate,  to  some  extent,  the  im- 
portance of  proper  attention  to  the  physical  education  of 
children ;  also,  that  this  matter  would  be  better  attended 
to  by  teachers  were  they  provided  with  more  specific  di- 
rections as  to  how  they  may  introduce  suitable  exercises 
into  school  without  the  expense  and  trouble  of  procuring 
apparatus. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  descriptions  and  illustrations  of 
movements  presented  herewith,  for  exercising  the  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  body,  and  the  directions  supplied  for 
their  use  in  school,  will  induce  many  teachers  to  give  this 
matter  more  attention  than  they  have  hitherto  devoted 
to  it.  And  in  the  use  of  the  following  physical  exercises 
it  should  be  remembered  that  each  kind  of  exercise  has 
its  appropriate  conditions.  It  ought  not  to  be  continued 
too  long,  nor  cease  too  soon ;  nor  be  made  too  slow,  nor 
too  fast. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISES.  301 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISES. 

Kinds  of  Movements,  and  their  Effects. — For  conven- 
ience in  describing  the  several  kinds  of  movements,  and  for  facil- 
ity in  directing  the  pupils  while  practising  the  different  exercises 
embraced  in  each,  the  movements  are  divided  into  seven  classes, 
the  name  of  the  class  indicating  the  portion  of  the  body  which 
is  to  be  exercised  by  it ;  and  the  class  is  divided  into  groups,  to 
show  the  kinds  of  motions  to  be  made.  Several  of  the  motions 
of  each  group  are  illustrated  by  cuts,  to  represent  the  mode  of 
making  them. 

ARM  MOVEMENTS. 
First  Group-— Arms-stretching. 

'Arms  forward — Fig.  1. 
"      backward— Fig.  2. 


Motions. — 


upward — Fig.  3. 


downward — Fig.  4. 
"      sidewise — Fig.  5. 

Arms  Forward-stretching. — Move  each  arm  forward  and  back, 
alternately,  four  times.  Move  both  arms  forward  and  back,  with 
force,  four  times.  See  Fig.  1. 

Arms  Backward -stretching.  —  Move  each  arm  backward,  al- 
ternately, four  times.  Move  both  arms  backward,  with  force, 
four  times.  See  Fig.  2. 

Arms  Upward-stretching. — Move  each  arm  upward,  alternate- 
ly, four  times.  Move  both  arms  upward,  with  force,  four  times. 
See  Fig.  3.  As  the  arms  are  brought  downward,  the  hands  may 
strike  the  breast  near  the  shoulder. 

Arms  Downward-stretching. — Move  each  arm  downward,  al- 
ternately, four  times.  Move  both  arms  downward,  with  force, 
four  times.  See  Fig.  4. 


302 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


Arms  Sidewise  -  stretching.  —  Move  each  arm  sidewise,  out- 
ward, alternately,  four  times.  Move  both  arms  outward,  side- 
wise,  four  times,  with  force.  See  Fig.  5. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 

Arms-stretching  Combined. — Move  both  arms  forward  twice, 
backward  twice,  upward  twice,  downward  twice,  sidewise  twice. 

Second  Group.— Arms-swinging. 

Arms  apart — Fig.  6. 
"      together— Fig.  7. 
"      sidewise — Fig.  8. 
"      forward     )  ,-,. 
"      backward  j 

Arms  Swinging  Apart. — Place  the  arms  together,  horizontally, 
in  front,  and  swing  them  apart,  backward,  four  times.    See  Fig.  6. 


Motions.— 


Fig.  C.  Fig.  7. 

Arms  Swinging  Together. — Carry  the  arms,  horizontally,  from 
in  front  slowly  outward,  and  bring  them  forward  with  force,  strik- 
ing the  palms  of  the  hands  together.  Repeat  this  four  times. 
See  Fig.  7. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISES. 


303 


Arms  Swinging  Sidewise. — Hold  the  arms  parallel  and  hori- 
zontally, and  swing  them  from  side  to  side,  four  times,  each  way. 
See  Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 

Arms  Swinging  Forward  and  Backward. — Place  the  arms  in 
a  horizontal  position  in  front,  then  swing  them  backward  and  for- 
ward, four  times  each  way,  without  bending  the  elbows.  As  the 
arms  are  swung  backward,  the  shoulders  should  incline  forward, 
as  in  the  cut.  See  Fig.  9. 

Third  Group- Arms-raising ;  Arms-twisting. 

Arms  Sidewise  -  raising. — Carry  the  arms,  without  bending 
them,  from  the  sides  slowly  to  a  perpendicular  position  over  the 
shoulders,  and  down  again  slowly,  four  times.  This  exercise 
greatly  aids  respiration.  See  Fig.  10. 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

Arms -twisting. —  Extend  the  arms  horizontally,  hold  them 
straight,  and  twist  them  forward  and  backward  four  times  each 
wav.  See  Fisr.  11. 


304: 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


The  arm  movements  facilitate  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
give  free  action  to  the  joints  of  the  arms,  promote  expansion  of 
the  chest,  and  aid  respiration. 


HAND  MOVEMENTS. 

(  Finger  exercises — Fig.  12. 
Motions. —  •<  Wrist  exercises — Fig.  13. 
(  Palm  exercises — Fig.  14. 

Finger  Exercises. — Open  and  shut  the  hands,  with  force,  eight 
times.  Spread  the  fingers  as  the  hand  opens,  See  Fig.  12. 

Wrist  Exercises. — Extend  the  arms  in  a  horizontal  position, 
keep  them  straight,  and  describe  figure  co  s  with  the  hands  closed, 
and  with  the  hands  open,  four  times  in  each  position.  See  Fig. 
13. 

A  good  exercise  for  the  wrists  and  muscles  of  the  arms. 


Pig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Palm-rubbing. — Extend  the  arms  in  front,  press  the  palms  of 
the  hands  together,  and,  without  bending  the  elbows,  draw  each 
hand  alternately  over  the  entire  length  of  the  other  four  times. 
See  Fig.  14. 

An  excellent  exercise  for  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoul- 
ders. 

Modifications  of  the  arm  movements  and  of  the  hand  move- 
ments may  be  introduced  by  the  teacher  that  will  add  to  the  va- 
riety of  the  exercises  and  extend  their  good  results.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  up  the  interest  of  the  pupils  in  all  the  move- 
ments. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISES. 


305 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  1C. 


HEAD  MOVEMENTS. 

(  Head-rotating. 

Motions. —  -j  Head-turning — Fig.  15. 
'  Head-bending — Fig.  16. 

Head-rotating. — Place  hands  on  the  hips,  and  turn  the  head 
from  right  to  left,  and  from  left  to  right,  four 
times  each,  bending  the  neck  as  the  head  ro- 
tates. 

Head-turning. — Place  hands   on  the  hips, 
and  turn  the  head  sidewise,  without  bending 
the  neck,  four  times  each  way.     See  Fig.  15. 
Head-bending. — Place  hands  on  hips,  and 
bend  the  head  forward  and  backward,  four 
times  each  way.     See  Fig.  16. 
The  pupils  should  stand  during  these  movements  with  heels 
together,  and  toes  turned  outward.     The  head  movements  should 
be  made  slowly.     They  are  useful  as  a  remedy  for  tendency  to 
vertigo,  giddiness,  headache,  etc. 

KNEE  MOVEMENTS. 

(  Knee  forward-bending — Fio\  17. 
Motions. —  -j  _, 

(  Courtesying — rig.  18. 

Knee  Forward-bending. — Place  hands  on  hips,  put  one  foot 
a  long  step  forward,  as  in  pacing,  then  bend  the  for- 
ward knee,  keeping  the  other  knee  straight,  and  thus 
lower  and  raise  the  body  four  times.  Change 
position,  and  repeat  the  same  with  the  other 
knee  four  times.  See  Fig.  17. 

Courtesying,  or  Knee-bending. — Place  heels 
together,  toes  turned  outward,  hands  on  hips, 
and  let  the  body  sink  down  slowly,  as  low  as 
possible,  while  the  trunk  maintains  an  upright  position ; 
then  rise  on  the  tiptoes  to  the  utmost  height,  four  times 
each.  See  Fig.  18.  These  knee  movements  are  excellent 
for  the  lower  extremities,  making  the  joints  and  muscles  stronger. 


Fig.  18. 


306  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


SHOULDER  MOVEMENTS. 

Motions.—  -I  Shoulder-raising-Fig.  19. 
(  Shoulder-bending. 

Shoulder -raising.  —  Raise  right  shoulder  as  high  as 
possible  four  times,  then  left  shoulder  in  same  manner 
four  times;  then  raise  both  shoulders  together  as  high 
as  possible  four  times.  In  making  these  motions,  lower 
the  shoulders  gently,  to  prevent  jarring  of  the  head. 
See  Fig.  19. 

If  any  pupil  has  one  shoulder  lower  than  the  other, 
the  shoulder-raising  should  be  performed  with  the  de- 
fective shoulder  only. 

Shoulders  Forward  and  Backward  Bending.  —  Stand  erect, 
place  arms  at  sides,  and  bend  shoulders  forward  and  backward 
four  times  each  way. 


CHEST  MOVEMENTS. 

Motions.—  -I  °hest  exPansion; 

(  Half -chest  exercise — Fig.  20. 

Chest  Expansion. — Place  hands  on  hips,  take  full  and  deep 
inspirations,  and  allow  the  air  to  pass  out  slowly,  through  the 
nostrils,  four  times. 

Second  Exercise. — Inflate  the  lungs,  and  beat  the  chest,  while 
holding  the  breath,  four  times  with  each  hand  alternately.  Pro- 
ceed gently  at  first. 

Half-chest  Exercise. — Place  one  hand  under  the  arm, 
pressing  tightly  against  the  ribs,  and  put  the  other  hand 
on  the  head ;  then  bend  the  body  sidewise  as  far  as  pos- 
sible toward  the  hand  against  the  side,  and  take  four 
deep  breaths. 

Change  the  hands,  and  repeat  the  same  with  the  other 
side  four  times.  Let  the  breathing  be  as  deep  and  com- 
plete as  possible,  but  gentle  and  regular. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISES. 


307 


TRUNK  MOVEMENTS. 
First  Group.— Trunk-twisting. 

(  Twist  to  the  left — Fig.  21. 
Motions.—  j  Twist  to  the  right. 

'  Twist  left  and  right. 

Make  these  motions  with  hands  on  hips,  also  with 
hands  on  head. 

Trunk  -  twisting.  —  Stand  with  heels  together,  toes 
turned  outward,  and  shoulders  back ;  place  hands  on 
hips,  and  turn  as  far  as  possible  without  moving  the 
feet,  to  the  left  two  times,  to  the  right  two  times,  and 
to  the  left  and  right  two  times  each  way.  See  Fig.  21. 

Repeat  these  motions  with  the  hands  on  the  head. 

Second  Group.— Trunk-bending. 

(  Bending  side  wise — Fig.  22. 
Motions. —  -j  Forward  and  backward — Fig.  23. 
'  Backward-bending — Fig.  24. 

Trunk  Sidewise  -  bending.  —  Stand  with  heels  together,  toes 
outward ;  place  hands  on  hips,  and  bend  the  trunk  two  times  to 
the  right  and  two  times  to  the  left ;  then  two  times  each  way  to 
the  right  and  left.  See  Fig.  22. 

•The  same  motions  may  be  repeated  with  hands  clasped  over 
the  head. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


Trunk  Forward  and  Backward  Bending.  —  Stand  as  before, 
with  hands  on  hips ;  keep  the  trunk  straight  while  bending  for- 


308  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ward  and  backward,  as  if  the  hips  were  the  hinges,  slowly  four 
times.     See  Fig.  23. 

Trunk  Backward-bending.  —  Stand  as  before,  place  the  hands 
firmly  at  the  small  of  the  back,  and  bend  backward  slowly,  as  far 
as  possible,  four  times.  See  Fig.  24. 

These  trunk-bending  movements  tend  to  strengthen  the  mus- 
cles of  the  back  and  abdomen,  and  to  relieve  constipation. 

Third  Group.-Trunk-rotating. 


Motions.—  \  Tum  b°dy  toward  riSht—  Fi&  25- 
(  Turn  body  toward  left. 

Trunk  -  rotating.  —  Stand  with  heels  together, 
toes  turned  outward  ;  place  hands  on  hips,  bend  the 
body  toward  the  right,  round  backward,  left,  and 
forward,  slowly,  four  times  ;  then  bend  body  to- 
ward the  left,  round  backward,  right,  and  forward, 
four  times.  See  Flo-.  25. 


Fig.  25. 

Fourth  Group.— Trunk-stretching. 

(  Stretch  on  both  feet— Fig.  26. 
Motions. —  •]  _ 

(  Stretch  on  one  foot. 

Tnmk  -  stretching.  —  Stand  with  feet  apart,  extend 
the  arms  above  the  head,  rise  slowly  upon  the  toes, 
and  stretch  upward  as  far  as  possible  four  times.  In- 
flate the  lungs  while  rising,  and  expel  the  air  while  set- 
tling down  upon  the  heels.  See  Fig.  26. 

Stretch  on  one  Foot. — Stand  on  one  foot,  rest  light- 
ly on  the  toe  of  the  other,  and  stretch  upward  four 
times,  inflating  the  lungs,  and  expelling  the  air  as  be- 
fore. Change ;  rest  on  the  other  foot,  and  stretch  up- 
ward as  before. 


TEACHING  THE  MOVEMENTS.  309 


TEACHING    THE   MOVEMENTS. 

IN  arranging  the  foregoing  list  of  physical  exercises,  the 
aim  has  been  to  give  a  variety  of  motions  which  can  be 
introduced  into  any  school-room  without  apparatus,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  such  as  will  bring  into  action  all  parts 
of  the  body,  but  most  thoroughly  the  trunk,  arms,  and 
Tipper  portions  of  it.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  out  of 
school  children  usually  exercise  their  legs  more  than  any 
other  part  of  the  body,  in  these  school  movements  more 
exercise  has  been  provided  for  the  trunk,  arms,  and  chest 
than  for  the  legs. 

It  will  be  observed  that  several  of  the  movements  de- 
scribed act  upon  the  same  organs  of  the  body,  although 
in  a  somewhat  different  manner.  All  of  these  motions 
may  be  taught,  yet  during  the  daily  drills  the  pupils 
should  not  go  through  with  the  entire  list  of  exercises. 
Farther  on,  sets  of  movements  will  be  given  to  indicate 
what  would  be  appropriate  for  a  single  drill. 

While  teaching  these  exercises  to  the  pupils,  those  of 
one  group  of  movements  only  should  be  taught  at  the  same 
lesson ;  but  those  previously  learned  may  be  reviewed 
with  each  new  group  taught,  until  the  pupils  are  familiar 
with  all  the  classes  of  movements,  and  with  the  exercises 
of  each  class. 

In  giving  instruction  in  the  movements,  the  teacher 
should  stand  in  front  of  the  pupils,  at  such  a  distance  that 
all  the  motions  can  be  distinctly  seen,  and  the  directions 
clearly  understood.  First,  require  every  pupil  to  observe 
the  teacher :  this  attention  must  be  secured,  or  the  exer- 
cises cannot  be  successfully  introduced. 


310  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  secure  prompt  and  uniform 
action  by  all  the  pupils,  for  this  precision  will  add  greatly 
to  the  interest  of  the  exercises,  and  also  to  their  beneficial 
effects  upon  the  system.  Indeed,  promptness  and  deci- 
sion alone  will  keep  up  interest  in  the  movements  for  a 
long  time,  when  all  other  means  have  failed. 

After  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  the  exer- 
cises of  several  of  the  classes  of  movements,  sets  of  exer- 
cises may  be  arranged  for  purpose  of  daily  drill.  In  se- 
lecting the  movements  for  these  sets,  care  should  be  had 
to  include  those  which  act  upon  as  wide  a  range  of  organs 
as  practicable. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  following  sets  will  sufficiently  il- 
lustrate this  point  to  enable  teachers  to  arrange  other  sets 
of  exercises  with  special  reference  to  the  needs  of  their 
own  pupils. 

SETS  OF  PHYSICAL  EXERCISES. 

i. 

Arm  Movements. — Arms- stretch  ing. 
Head  Movements. — Head-turning. 
Knee  Movements. — Knee  forward-bending. 
Chest  Movements. — Chest  expansion. 
Trunk  Movements. — Trunk-twisting. 

ii. 

Arm  Movements. — Arms-swinging. 
Hand  Movements. — Finger  exercises. 
Head  Movements. — Head-bending. 
Knee  Movements. — Courtesy  ing. 
Chest  Movements. — Half-chest  exercises. 
Trunk  Movements. — Trunk-bending. 


.    TEACHING  THE  MOVEMENTS.  311 

in. 

Arm  Movements. — Arms-twisting,  arms-raising. 
Hand  Movements. — Wrist  exercises. 
Head  Movements. — Head-rotating. 
Knee  Movements. — Knee  forward-bending. 
Trunk  Movements. — Trunk-stretching. 

IV. 

Arm  Movements. — Arms-stretching. 
Hand  Movements. — Palm  exercise. 
Shoulder  Movements. — Shoulder-raising. 
Chest  Movements. — Chest  expansion. 
Trunk  Movements. — Trunk-rotating. 

v. 

Knee  Movements. — Knee  forward-bending. 
Hand  Movements. — Finger  exercises,  wrist  exercises. 
Shoulder  Movements. — Shoulder-bending. 
Trunk  Movements. — Trunk-bending. 
Chest  Movements. — Half-chest  exercise. 


312  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


EXERCISE-DRILL. 

HAYING  described  the  movements,  and  given  a  few 
"sets"  suitable  for  daily  exercises,  it  now  remains  to 
point  out  a  way  in  which  these  exercise -drills  may  be 
used  in  school  for  the  promotion  of  good  health,  and  im- 
proving the  physical  condition  of  the  pupils. 

These  movements  are  best  for  a  large  class  when  ac- 
companied with  music  by  the  piano ;  but,  where  this  is 
not  obtainable,  vocal  exercises  may  be  substituted,  such 
as  counting  one,  two,  three,  four;  or,  making  the  vowel 

sounds,  as  a,  a,  a,  a.  Either  a  musical  instrument  or  vocal 
exercises  are  important  for  securing  that  attention  to  time 
which  gives  precision  and  interest  to  the  movements. 

The  teacher  may  direct  the  movements  by  announcing 
the  group  and  motions  somewhat  as  follows,  viz. : 

"First  Position!"  [Standing  erect,  resting  upon  both  feet, 
heels  together,  toes  turned  outward  about  forty-five  degrees,  arms 
hanging  at  sides,  eyes  toward  the  teacher.  This  position  is  to  be 
maintained  until  changed  to  execute  the  movement  announced.] 

"  Arms-stretching :  forward — one,  two,  three,  four  ;  backward 
— one,  two,  three,  four;  upward  —  one,  two,  three,  four;  down- 
ward —  one,  two,  three,  four ;  sidewise  —  one,  two,  three,  four ; 
rest."  Pupils  resume  the  first  position. 

"Head-turning  [Pupils  place  hands  on  hips  at  this  announce- 
ment] :  right — one,  two,  three,  four  ;  left — one,  two,  three,  four  ; 
rest." 

"Knee  Forward  -  bending :  right  —  one,  two,  three,  four; 
change ;  left — one,  two,  three,  four ;  rest." 


EXERCISE-DRILL.  313 

"  Chest  expansion  [slowly,  with  lungs  inflated]  :  one,  two, 
three,  four ;  inflate  lungs — one,  two,  three-,  four ;  rest." 

"  Trunk- twisting :  left — one,  two,  three,  four ;  right — one,  two, 
three,  four ;  left  and  right — one,  two,  three,  four ;  rest." 

The  announcement  of  the  kind  of  movement  should  be 
the  signal  to  the  pupils  that  they  are  at  once  to  assume 
the  necessary  position  to  commence  the  movement  with 
the  count  one.  Where  a  piano  is  used,  signals  may  be 
arranged  so  that  the  pupils  will  be  guided  by  the  piano, 
after  the  kind  of  movement  has  been  announced ;  indeed, 
a  whole  set  of  exercises  could  be  conducted  by  signals  on 
the  piano  alone.  After  a  little  careful  experience  the 
teacher  will  be  able  to  devise  modes  of  directing  these 
exercise-drills  in  an  appropriate  manner.  This  experience 
will  become  successful  by  observing  a  few  important  facts, 
viz. :  The  exercise  should  be  done  slowly  at  first.  A  few 
thoroughly  -  mastered  movements,  well  made,  are  more 
useful  than  many  exercises  half  learned  and  poorly  per- 
formed. Promptness  in  executing  the  movements,  with 
a  spirited,  cheerful  manner,  add  much  to  their  useful- 
ness. 

During  these  exercises  there  should  be  an  active  cheer- 
fulness; and,  if  amusement  can  be  combined  with  them, 
their  beneficial  results  will  be  more  apparent.  Some  of 
the  exercises  require  slow  movements ;  others  may  be  in- 
creased in  rapidity,  so  as  to  be  more  enlivening,  after  the 
children  have  Become  accustomed  to  them. 

It  may  be  asked,  How  often  should  these  physical  ex- 
ercises be  given  in  school  ? 

This  question  must  be  answered  by  one  who  is  famil- 
iar with  the  arrangement  of  the  school — the  principal,  or 
chief  teacher.  But  in  giving  the  answer  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  sufficient  bodily  exercise  is  just  as  impor- 
tant to  the  welfare  of  the  child  as  is  the  mental  exer- 

U 


314:  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

cise,  or  study — indeed,  the  mental  exercise  cannot  be  most 
beneficial  without  due  attention  to  the  physical  training. 

With  the  younger  pupils  brief  exercises  should  be  had 
every  half-hour,  occupying  the  time  of  one  group  of  move- 
ments. Sometimes  the  needed  relief  may  be  afforded  the 
young  pupils  by  standing  and  sitting  two  or  three  times 
alternately,  and  a  brief  exercise  with  hands  and  arms.  In 
classes  of  older  pupils  the  exercises  may  be  used  less  fre- 
quently ;  but  the  teacher  should  notice  those  indications 
of  the  need  of  exercise,  of  fresh  air,  etc.,  which  the  pupils 
give  by  restlessness,  listlessness,  and  general  relaxation  of 
interest  and  attention,  and  the  necessary  relief  should  be 
afforded  at  once,  without  waiting  for  a  iixed  time  for  phys- 
ical exercises.  This  can  usually  be  given  by  spending  a 
few  moments  in  some  simple  exercise  that  will  promote  a 
freer  circulation  of  the  blood. 

But  aside  from  these  impromptu  exercises,  there  should 
be  at  least  fifteen  minutes  spent  eacli  half-day  in  such  ex- 
ercise-drills as  will  improve  the  general  physical  condition 
of  the  pupils. 

Physical  training  should  not  be  confined  to  the  school- 
room. To  train  children  properly,  amusing  games  ought 
to  be  devised  for  play-ground  exercises,  and  such  as  will 
cultivate  kindly  affections.  Games  of  skill  and  dexter- 
ity should  be  encouraged,  both  at  home  and  at  school. 
Allowing  children  plenty  of  hearty,  innocent  fun  on 
proper  occasions  will  promote  their  happiness  and  in- 
crease their  mental  and  physical  development.  Seek  to 
guide  children  in  suitable  amusements  rather  than  de- 
prive them  of  such  needed  recreation.  The  confidence, 
love,  and  obedience  of  children  may  be  won  by  such  a 
course. 

The  primary  school  especially  should  be  a  light,  cheer- 
ful place.  The  hours  of  school  attendance  should  not 
be  long ;  from  four  to  five  hours  a  day,  for  the  younger 


EXERCISE   DRILL.  315 

pupils  of  a  primary  school,  is  better  than  six,  even  for 
mental  proficiency.  A  primary  school  that  has  even  five 
hours  of  session  per  day  should  have  an  hour  or  more  of 
interval  at  mid-day.  Besides,  there  should  be  also  one  or 
two  recesses  during  each  session  for  the  younger  children. 
The  exercises  of  the  school  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
give  a  change  of  position  and  of  subject  as  often  as  every 
twenty  or  thirty  minutes.  Children  will  rarely  give  suf- 
ficient attention  to  derive  much  benefit  from  a  lesson  that 
is  continued  for  a  Iqnger  time. 

Whenever  possible,  lessons  that  require  the  exercise  of 
different  senses  should  follow  each  other,  with  young  pu- 
pils, as  these  changes  afford  relief  to  the  mind,  and  con- 
tinue the  interest  of  the  children  in  the  lessons  without 
fatigue. 

Singing  is  a  physical  exercise  of  wonderful  power  in 
relieving  the  more  serious  work  of  the  school.  It  exerts 

C_> 

a  calming  and  cheering  influence.  Singing  is  indispensa- 
ble to  the  successful  management  of  a  primary  school ; 
it  is  a  great  moral  power.  Exercise  songs,  in  which  va- 
rious physical  actions  are  represented  or  performed  by 
the  pupils,  are  very  appropriate  for  primary  schools ;  but 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  teach  geography,  arithmetic, 
or  any  other  similar  study  by  means  of  singing,  an  other- 
wise good  exercise  is  employed  for  an  improper  purpose. 
The  province  of  singing  is  not  to  train  the  intellectual 
powers,  but  to  cultivate  the  feelings  and  the  heart,  and  it 
should  be  used  in  its  proper  sphere. 

The  means  suitable  to  be  used  for  physical  culture  are 
various.  A  skilful  teacher  will  select  those  best  adapted 
for  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  school.  All  things 
that  tend  to  cleanliness  and  personal  neatness,  proper 
modes  of  sitting,  standing,  walking,  holding  books,  slates, 
sitting  at  desk  and  holding  pen  while  writing,  marching 
with  a  military  step  on  leaving  the  school-room,  are  use- 


316  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

fill  means  in  physical  training,  and  these  matters  should 
receive  the  careful  attention  of  all  teachers. 

Training  the  voice  by  phonetics,  or  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language,  in  distinctness  of  articulation,  in 
reading  and  speaking,  is  an  important  means  of  physical 
culture.  In  short,  pure  air,  thorough  ventilation,  and  reg- 
ular physical  exercise  are  indispensable  to  health  of  body 
and  mental  progress. 


MORAL  TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  317 


MORAL   TRAINING*  AND    SCHOOL 
DISCIPLINE. 

"O'er  wayward  childhood  would'st  thou  hold  firm  rule, 
And  sun  thee  in  the  light  of  happy  faces, 
Love,  Hope,  and  Patience,  these  must  be  thy  graces, 
And  in  thine  own  heart  let  them  first  keep  school." 

COLERIDGE. 

IF  the  intellectual  powers  of  inind  may  be  called  the 
machinery  of  intelligence,  the  moral  powers  may  be  des- 
ignated as  the  forces  that  set  this  machinery  in  motion, 
and  direct  the  course  of  its  action  toward  good  or  evil, 
happiness  or  misery.  The  right  development  of  these 
forces,  therefore,  is  of  greater  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  child  than  the  education  of  the  intellectual  powers. 

Moral  development  is  based  upon  the  emotions.  The 
emotions  spring  originally  from  those  impulses  which 
urge  each  individual  to  preserve  his  own  life,  to  seek  his 
own  welfare,  and  which  invite  him  through  pleasures  ex- 
perienced to  those  things  which  are  beneficial,  and  warn 
him  by  pains  endured  to  shrink  from  that  which  is  inju- 
rious. But  emotions  require  the  guidance  of  intelligence 
and  reason  to  attain  the  best  good  for  the  individual  and 
for  society. 

We  cannot  create  an  emotion,  but  we  can  incite  it  to 
action  by  presenting  the  appropriate  stimulus.  The  law 

*  Please  read  under  head  of  Science  of  Education  what  is  said  about  the 
"Powers  of  Moral  Action,"  page  430;  and  the  "Power  of  Willing,"  page 
443. 


318  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  emotion  is,  "Like  begets  like."  Kindness  in  ns  begets 
kindness  in  others ;  selfishness  in  ourselves  awakens  self- 
ishness in  those  around  us.  The  emotions  become  active, 
just  as  sensations  arise  in  response  to  the  natural  excitants 
of  their  several  organs.  We  can  no  more  help  loving 
that  which  seems  to  us  amiable,  and  which  awakens  in 
us  corresponding  emotions,  than  we  can  help  seeing  light 
and  hearing  sound.  The  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to 
hating  that  which  appears  to  us  odious. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  impressions,  which  affect  the 
emotions  with  differing  results,  as  with  satisfaction,  with 
pleasure,  with  disgust,  with  pain.  The  two  kinds  of  im- 
pressions which  strengthen  the  mind  are  those  of  satisfac- 
tion &\\&  pleasure  ;  those  which  weaken,  or  in  some  way 
affect  the  mind  injuriously,  are  disgust  andjpam.  These 
impressions  are  often  produced  by  impatience,  injustice, 
and  constant  fault-finding  by  those  who  have  the  training 
of  children,  and  may  result  in  great  injury  to  their  moral 
and  intellectual  life.  Above  all  things,  then,  let  such  per- 
sons strive  to  be  patient,  gentle,  and  persevering  in  all 
their  dealings  with  the  young. 

Emotions  are  the  attractions  and  repulsions  which  tend 
to  keep  us  in  our  proper  relations  to  the  world  around. 
The  emotions  that  we  entertain  return  to  us  again  and 
again,  until  they  finally  remain  permanently,  influencing 
all  our  conduct.  Every  action  that  we  perform,  every 
thought  that  crosses  the  mind,  every  emotion  that  we  feel, 
is  the  beginning  of  what  may  become  a  habit,  and  a  part 
of  our  character.  No  person  is  competent  to  say  that  he 
will  do  a  wrong  act  only  once,  because  the  doing  of  that 
very  act  deprives  him  of  a  portion  of  his  power  to  resist 
the  temptation  to  do  it  again.  So,  on  the  other  hand, 
each  single,  manly  resistance  of  an  inducement,  or  inclina- 
tion, to  do  a  wrong  act  increases  the  power  of  resistance, 
and  weakens  the  temptation  or  desire  to  do  it. 


MORAL  TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE.  319 

It  has  been  well  said  that  "a  thought  is  an  embryo 
action ;  give  it  time,  and  it  will  mature  itself ;  entertain 
it,  and  it  will  return  again  and  again,  until  at  last  nothing 
but  a  determined  effort  of  the  will  can  prevent  it  from 
acting  itself  out."  Herein  lies  the  real  source  of  much 
of  the  wrong-doing  in  the  world.  Wrong  thoughts  are 
entertained  until,  unconsciously,  they  gain  the  power  to 
escape  in  actions,  and  society  is  astounded  by  what  seems 
to  be  a  sudden  loss  of  integrity.  But  the  thoughts  that 
led  to  the  dishonest  act  had  been  entertained  until  its 
accumulated  strength  overcame  the  resistance  of  a  weak- 
ened will. 

To  impress  those  under  your  instruction  with  habits 
of  entertaining  only  good  thoughts,  and  of  acting  from 
right  motives,  is  your  highest  duty  as  a  teacher.  Success 
in  this  is  the  greatest  triumph  a  teacher  can  attain. 
Training  in  good  habits  of  thinking  and  acting  is  of 
more  value  to  your  pupils  than  the  learning  of  all  that 
the  best  text-books  contain  concerning  the  whole  circle 
of  the  sciences. 

How  can  these  important  ends  in  education  be  attained? 
What  may  Primary  teachers  do  toward  securing  so  great 
a  boon  for  their  pupils?  These  inquiries  deserve  more 
serious  attention  by  each  teacher  than  the  matter  of  how 
to  teach  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  geography,  gram- 
mar, writing,  or  all  of  these  studies  combined. 

Perhaps  you  are  now  in  imagination  before  your  class, 
and  wishing  to  know  how  you  can  change  the  wayward 
actions  of  your  pupils  by  moral  training.  How  can  the 
incidents  of  school  be  seized  so  as  to  drive  out  wrong  ac- 
tions by  bringing  in  good  actions  ?  may  be  your  inquiry. 
I  shall  not  undertake  to  tell  you  how  you  may  accom- 
plish this  result  in  each  individual  class,  but  I  will  try 
to  bring  before  you  incidents  to  explain  the  nature  of 
this  work,  and  such  as  I  trust  will  give  you  practical 


320  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

hints  that  will  enable  you  to  proceed  so  as  to  attain  a 
good  degree  of  success. 

Whatever  the  means  you  select  to  aid  in  the  moral 
training,  in  order  to  be  effectual,  must  be  so  long  con- 
tinued as  to  gain  power  through  the  influence  of  habit. 

Facts  to  be  Remembered. — The  following  important 
facts  should  be  remembered  in  connection  with  methods 
that  may  be  employed  in  moral  training  and  discipline : 

First. — From  thirty  to  ffty  active  observers  are  receiving  im- 
pressions from  your  manner  of  moving,  from  your  tones  of  voice, 
from  the  disposition  and  temper  which  you  exhibit  before  them, 
from  yom*  kindness  or  the  want  of  it,  from  your  earnestness  of 
purpose,  from  your  justice  and  firmness,  from  your  efforts  to  make 
the  school-room  pleasant.  These  impressions,  according  to  their 
nature,  will  help  or  hinder  your  work  of  moral  instruction  and 
discipline. 

Second. —  Cheerfulness  of  disposition,  pleasant  tones,  words  of 
encouragement,  kindly  spoken  and  properly  bestowed,  evenness  of 
manner,  and  uniform  justness,  will  inspire  the  confidence  of  your 
pupils,  and  such  a  degree  of  respect  as  will  remove  the  chief  bur- 
den in  governing  your  class. 

Third.  —  Study  carefully  the  disposition,  taste,  and  habits  of 
your  pupils.  Find  out  what  most  readily  interests  them,  and 
what  they  like  to  do.  Awaken  in  them  a  desire  to  do  something 
to  please  some  one  else,  and  from  this  lead  them  to  do  things  to 
please  you.  When  you  find  that  a  boy  can  do  one  thing  well, 
you  have  a  key  to  his  character,  and  an  indication  as  to  its  prop- 
er management.  What  a  boy  does  out  of  the  pure  impulse  of 
his  own  nature,  he  does  better  than  when  he  acts  under  any  other 
motive. 

Fourth. — Remember  that  activity  is  a  law  of  childhood.  Your 
success  as  a  teacher  will  depend  much  upon  the  manner  in  which 
you  guide  that  activity.  Shape  your  methods  of  teaching  so  that 
your  pupils  shall  have  opportunity  to  be  active  in  body  as  well 


MORAL  TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  321 

as  in  mind.  They  take  the  deepest  interest  in  those  exercises 
which  afford  activity  for  their  limbs. 

Remember  that  if  you  do  not  furnish  occupation  for  your  pu- 
pils, and  make  the  lesson  interesting  to  them,  they  will  soon  learn 
to  find  such  occupation  as  pleases  themselves,  and  become  so  ea- 
ger in  seeking  it  as  to  pay  but  little  heed  to  your  efforts  for  pre- 
venting them  from  acting  in  accordance  with  their  bad  choice. 

The  best  order  does  not  consist  in  maintaining  any  fixed  posi- 
tion, nor  in  absolute  quietness,  but  rather  in  that  interested  atten- 
tion to  the  lessons  which  so  occupies  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as 
to  leave  no  inclination  for  disorder. 

Fifth. — To  praise  a  child  for  meritorious  conduct  is  as  much 
the  duty  of  a  teacher  as  to  reprove  for  faults.  Praise,  whenever 
you  can  do  so  judiciously.  Censure  sparingly.  Seldom  find 
fault.  Do  not  scold.  Never  threaten. 

Believing  that  a  boy  has  some  good  in  him,  and  letting  him 
know  that  you  believe  it,  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  putting  it 
there.  Such  treatment  will  develop  self-respect  in  children. 

Sixth.  —  Encourage  your  pupils  by  showing  interest  in  their 
progress,  and  by  your  kindness  of  manner.  Let  them  feel  sorrow 
at  displeasing  you,  but  not  fear  at  seeing  you.  The  following 
incidents  will  illustrate  this  point : 

One  day  a  poor  boy,  about  eight  years  of  age,  was  admitted 
into  school.  His  chief  characteristic  appeared  to  be  a  stolid  in- 
difference to  everything.  He  seldom  smiled,  scarcely  ever  laugh- 
ed, and  no  other  emotion  changed  his  face.  His  teacher  regarded 
him  as  a  case  of  hopeless  stupidity,  yet  did  not  tell  the  boy  so. 
In  the  play-ground  there  was  a  circular  swing.  One  day  the 
teacher  saw  this  boy  take  hold  of  a  rope  with  one  hand  only, 
and  swing  himself  around  with  body  nearly  as  straight  as  an  ar- 
row. There  must  be  nerve  and  will-power  in  that  boy,  thought 
the  teacher,  who  praised  his  swinging,  and  noticed  the  first  real 
ray  of  light  in  his  eyes.  From  that  day  the  teacher  had  hope  for 
the  boy,  and  the  boy  had  regard  for  his  teacher,  and  tried  to  do 
things  to  please  him.  He  began  to  learn,  and  soon  made  such 
improvement  that  he  seemed  as  one  just  awakening  to  a  new  life. 

14* 


322  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

In  another  school  a  teacher  noticed  that  one  of  her  pupils,  who 
had  never  taken  much  interest  in  her  studies,  and  who  made  little 
progress  in  learning,  could  sing  quite  well.  She  asked  the  little 
girl  to  sing  the  exercise  alone.  She  sung  it  well,  and  was  com- 
mended for  it.  Then  other  pupils  were  asked  to  try  to  sing  it 
as  well  as  Jane  did.  Afterward  Jane  was  called  to  sing  other 
exercises  alone,  and  made  rapid  improvement  in  singing. 

Her  teacher  after  a  few  weeks  noticed  that  Jane  was  also  tak- 
ing more  interest  in  her  other  lessons ;  that  she  was  making  much 
improvement;  and  commended  her  for  it.  One  day,  after  com- 
mending Jane  for  advancement  in  her  studies,  the  teacher  asked 
what  made  her  take  so  much  more  interest  in  her  lessons  than 
she  formerly  did.  Her  answer,  "  I  feel  more  encouraged  than  I 
did,"  points  to  encouragement  as  one  of  the  means  of  success  in 
your  work  as  a  teacher. 

Seventh. —  Treat  your  pupils  with  kindness  in  the  correction 
of  their  faults,  and  thus  gain  their  confidence  and  respect.  Let 
them  feel  that  you  sympathize  with  them  in  those  unfortunate 
deeds  which  result  from  accidents,  without  any  wrong  intention. 
The  case  of  the  boy  who  broke  a  pane  of  glass  accidentally  will 
suggest  a  temper  of  mind  for  dealing  with  similar  incidents. 

During  the  recess  one  day,  a  little  boy  threw  a  piece  of  coal, 
without  thinking  of  the  window  toward  which  he  sent  it.  It 
struck  a  pane  of  glass  and  broke  it.  The  teacher  chanced  to  see 
the  act.  When  the  boys  returned  to  their  seats,  the  teacher  con- 
cluded to  wait  awhile  before  alluding  to  the  accident.  The  ex- 
ercises were  resumed  as  usual.  After  a  while  the  boy  who  threw 
the  piece  of  coal  was  requested,  very  kindly,  to  show  the  teacher 
his  example  in  arithmetic.  He  felt  the  kindness  of  the  teacher 
while  standing  by  her,  and  took  courage  to  say,  in  a  quiet  tone  of 
voice,  "  A  boy  broke  a  window."  The  teacher  took  him  gently 
by  the  hand,  and  he  added,  "  He  broke  it  with  a  piece  of  coal ; 
but  he  did  not  mean  to  do  it."  The  teacher  said,  "  I  am  very 
sorry,"  but  showed  no  signs  of  harshness;  and  the  boy  took 
courage  to  say,  "  I  broke  it ;  I  am  very  sorry."  The  teacher 
kissed  the  little  boy,  and  commended  him  for  telling  her  about 
it,  then  added  words  of  admonition. 


MORAL   TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE.  323 

That  incident  proved  more  effectual  in  guarding  that  boy 
against  similar  carelessness,  and  was  more  lasting  in  its  influence 
toward  right  actions,  than  would  have  been  sharp  reproof  before 
the  class,  or  any  infliction  of  corporal  punishment. 

Eighth. — Do  not  attempt  to  govern  your  class  by  naming  indi- 
vidual pupils,  and  charging  them  with  faults.  Such  a  course 
seldom  secures  the  desired  end.  Scolding  for  every  petty  offence 
does  not  make  pupils  more  careful  to  comply  with  your  wishes, 
or  to  obey  your  commands.  Remember  that  your  pupils  do  not 
love  continual  fault-finding,  or  scolding,  more  than  you  did  when 
you  were  a  pupil.  Try  to  imagine  yourself  the  pupil,  and  to 
think  what  course  would  be  most  likely  to  secure  your  own  at- 
tention and  cheerful  obedience  under  similar  circumstances,  and 
let  your  decision  guide  in  the  treatment  of  your  pupils. 

Ninth. — Develop  a  right  public  opinion  in  your  school.  In- 
stead of  giving  your  attention  to  individual  pupils  and  single 
misdeeds,  trying  to  correct  each  in  detail,  endeavor  to  deal  with 
faults  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exert  an  influence  upon  the  entire 
class  which  will  lead  to  right  thoughts  and  better  actions.  Aim 
thus  to  develop  the  public  opinion  of  your  class  in  favor  of  the 
right,  so  that  you  may  govern  individual  pupils  through  the  in- 
fluence of  your  class. 

Suppose  you  have  a  class  of  young  pupils,  among  whom  are 
many  careless  or  restless  children,  and  you  notice  that  they  make 
a  great  deal  of  noise  in  taking  slates  from  the  desks,  or  in  placing 
slates  on  the  desks; — to  tell  them  to  make  less  noise,  or  to 
remind  John,  Charles,  and  William  that  they  are  too  noisy,  or 
to  take  their  slates  away  from  them,  will  not  secure  habits  of 
handling  slates  quietly.  But  if  you  tell  the  class  that  some  of 
the  boys  are  always  quiet  in  handling  their  slates,  and  that  it 
would  be  so  pleasant  if  all  the  boys  would  try  to  be  quiet,  then 
ask,  how  many  would  like  to  try  to  put  down  and  take  up  their 
slates  quietly?  The  unanimous  response  would  commit  the  class 
in  favor  of  less  noise.  Then,  by  dividing  your  class  into  three  or 
more  sections,  by  their  seats,  and  asking  one  section  to  take  slates, 
and  put  away  slates,  while  the  others  observe  how  quietly  it  is 


324:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

done,  you  would  direct  attention  to  the  matter,  so  as  to  make  it 
easy  to  induce  each  section  to  try  to  excel  the  others  in  han- 
dling slates  quietly.  Commend  the  section  that  does  best,  and 
encourage  each  other  section  to  excel  it. 

By  such  or  a  similar  plan  of  directing  the  attention  of  the  class 
favorably  to  that  which  you  desire  to  secure,  and  by  appealing  to 
the  self-respect  and  satisfaction  which  accompany  success  through 
praiseworthy  etforts,  good  habits  may  be  formed  that  will  relieve 
the  teacher  of  very  many  annoyances  that  usually  arise  in  disci- 
pline. And  if  such  plans  be  wisely  carried  out  in  all  matters  of 
discipline,  the  moral  training  produced  thereby  will  ultimately 
place  the  teacher  in  the  position  of  director,  or  leader,  in  matters 
of  school  government,  and  the  pupils  as  his  willing  allies.  The 
exceptional  cases  that  need  special  attention  will  be  few  and  ea- 
sily managed. 

Tenth.  —  Do  not  repeatedly  tell  pupils  of  their  own  faults. 
Instead  of  directly  telling  pupils  of  their  faults  and  bad  conduct, 
lead  them  to  see  their  own  misdeeds  in  their  true  light,  through 
the  public  opinion  of  the  class.  The  following  incidents  will  il- 
lustrate this  point : 

One  morning  in  summer  a  little  boy  went  to  his  teacher,  and 
said,  in  substance,  "Henry  and  I  found  a  bird's -nest  yesterday, 
on  our  way  home  from  school ;  it  had  little  birds  in  it.  Henry 
took  away  the  nest,  and  left  the  young  birds  on  the  ground." 
The  teacher  expressed  sorrow  at  the  cruel  act,  and  told  the  boy 
to  go  to  his  seat. 

The  teacher  began  to  think  what  could  be  done  with  this  inci- 
dent to  benefit  the  school  and  correct  Henry's  cruel  disposition. 
Henry  was  a  boy  in  whom  kindness  had  never  been  developed  by 
his  home  treatment.  Domestic  bliss  did  not  abide  with  his  par- 
ents. Henry  was  accustomed  to  the  whip  for  every  trivial  of- 
fence as  regularly  as  to  his  meals  and  sleep.  One  evening,  after 
being  put  to  bed,  he  was  heard  to  tell  his  mother,  in  response 
to  her  repeated  command  to  "go  to  sleep,"  "  I  can't  go  to  sleep ; 
you  have  not  whipped  me  yet." 

Henry  attended   school  quite  regularly,  but  made  very  little 


MORAL   TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE.  325 

progress  in  anything  except  mischief.  On  the  occasion  of  his 
cruelty  to  the  young  birds,  the  teacher  decided  to  use  this  act  so 
as  to  awaken  in  all  the  younger  pupils  feelings  of  kindness  to- 
ward birds.  Accordingly,  when  a  class  composed  of  children 
but  little  older  than  Henry,  yet  much  farther  advanced  in  their 
reading,  was  called  to  read,  the  teacher  selected  a  lesson  about 
boys  robbing  a  bird's-nest.  Without  intimating  why  this  lesson 
was  chosen,  Henry  was  requested  to  stand  by  the  teacher,  and 
listen  to  what  the  class  read.  He  did  not  know  that  the  teacher 
had  heard  of  his  cruel  act  toward  the  young  birds. 

Henry  listened  to  the  story  of  robbing  a  bird's-nest  with  an 
interest  unusual  to  him,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  read- 
ing lesson  was  a  moral  mirror,  in  which  he  saw  himself  reflected; 
for,  before  the  lesson  was  finished,  he  looked  up  to  his  teacher, 
and  said,  "I  did  not  kill  the  birds."  His  teacher  asked,  "Did 
you  find  a  bird's-nest  ?"  "  Yes,  but  I  did  not  kill  the  little  birds," 
said  Henry ;  "  I  only  threw  the  nest  away,  and  left  the  birds  on 
the  ground." 

In  reply  to  a  few  questions,  Henry  told  the  story  about  the 
finding  of  the  bird's-nest,  and  his  treatment  of  it  the  night  be- 
fore, substantially  as  the  little  boy  had  told  the  teacher  that  morn- 
ing. Then,  without  directly  reproving  Henry  for  what  he  did, 
an  appeal  was  made  to  the  class  to  decide  whether  the  conduct 
of  the  boys,  as  described  in  the  lesson  read,  was  right  or  not; 
then  the  class  was  asked  if  it  would  be  right  for  one  of  them  to 
do  as  the  boy  in  the  lesson  did ;  then,  if  it  was  cruel  to  throw 
away  the  nest  of  young  birds,  and  leave  the  little  ones  on  the 
cold  ground.  While  the  public  opinion  of  the  class  was  so  strong 
for  the  right,  supposed  cases  were  presented  for  the  opinion  of 
the  class  as  to  what  would  be  right,  and  all  the  probable  cases 
were  decided  in  favor  of  kindness  to  birds,  and  against  cruelty. 

This  single  lesson  proved  effective;  neither  Henry  nor  any 
other  boy  in  school  was  known  to  treat  birds  with  cruelty  during 
the  remainder  of  that  term ;  and  doubtless  the  feelings  of  kind- 
ness toward  birds,  which  were  awakened  by  that  incident,  exerted 
an  influence  that  extended  through  many  years.  This  incident 
occurred  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  yet  that  teacher  remembers 


326  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

to-day  the  intense  and  earnest  feeling  manifested  by  that  class ; 
and  such  scenes  do  not  easily  fade  from  childhood  memory. 
Similar  methods  may  be  used  to  correct  some  of  the  bad  habits 
in  your  class. 

Some  of  the  cases  of  bad  conduct  in  school  can  be  dealt  with 
effectively  only  by  moral  means,  and  these  can  usually  be  em- 
ployed best  through  the  public  opinion  of  the  class.  Instances 
of  disrespectfulness  toward  a  teacher,  or  toward  other  persons, 
belong  to  this  class  of  cases. 

One  day  a  boy  gave  the  principal  of  his  school  an  insolent  re- 
ply. All  who  heard  it  were  greatly  astonished;  but  the  princi- 
pal did  not  exhibit  anger  by  scolding,  or  threatening  the  boy 
with  punishment.  He  quickly  determined  to  improve  that  op- 
portunity by  teaching  a  valuable  lesson  to  the  entire  school. 
The  very  calmness  of  his  manner  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
school ;  and,  while  the  pupils  wondered  how  the  disrespectful 
boy  would  be  punished,  they  felt  certain  that  such  conduct  would 
not  be  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed. 

The  hour  for  closing  came,  and  school  was  dismissed  without 
any  allusion  to  the  conduct  of  the  boy.  That  night  the  principal 
made  his  plans,  to  be  carried  out  on  the  following  day.  After 
the  customary  opening  exercises  on  the  morning  of  the  next  day, 
the  principal  addressed  the  school  substantially  as  follows : 

"  Boys,  if,  while  you  were  at  play  in  the  street  before  school 
opened,  a  gentleman  who  was  passing  the  school  should  inquire 
the  direction  to  the  railroad  station,  would  you  tell  him  the  way 
in  a  respectful  manner  ?" 

"  Yes,  sir,"  was  the  unanimous  response. 

"  Suppose  a  common  laborer,  whose  occupation  soiled  his  gar- 
ments, should  come  along,  and  ask  the  way  to Street,  would 

you  tell  him  as  well  as  you  could,  or  would  you  treat  him  rudely, 
telling  him  to  go  about  his  business?" 

"  We  would  tell  him  the  right  way,"  said  the  boys. 

"  Very  good,"  said  the  principal ;  "I  am  pleased  to  know  that 
you  have  too  much  respect  for  yourselves  and  for  others  to  be- 
have rudely  under  such  circumstances.  Now,  suppose  a  man, 
very  poorly  clad,  who  was  seeking  work  that  he  might  earn  food 


MORAL  TRAINING  AND   SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  327 

for  his  wife  and  children,  or  even  one  who  was  begging  his  daily 
food,  should  ask  you  a  civil  question,  how  would  you  treat  him  ? 
Would  you  give  him  a  civil  answer?" 

"  Yes,  sir,"  responded  the  school. 

"  That  is  right,  boys ;  I  am  happy  to  know  that  you  believe 
it  to  be  right  to  treat  all  persons  civilly,  and  to  answer  all  proper 
questions  respectfully,  without  regard  to  the  external  appearance 
of  the  one  who  asks  the  question." 

Thus  the  principal  prepared  the  school  for  the  lesson  he  had 
planned  to  give.  After  a  pause,  looking  carefully  over  the  school, 
until  all  eyes  were  fixed  upon  him,  even  those  of  the  boy  who 
gave  him  a  disrespectful  answer  the  day  before,  he  said,  in  a  de- 
liberate manner,  with  a  kind  but  sad  tone  of  voice,  "  Yesterday 
afternoon  I  asked  a  question  of  one  of  the  boys  of  this  school. 
It  was  a  proper  question  for  me  to  ask  a  pupil ;  it  was  a  ques- 
tion which  was  justly  entitled  to  a  respectful  reply ;  and  yet  I 
am  very  sorry  to  know  that  even  one  boy  in  this  school  so  far 
forgot  that  respect  which  is  due  to  his  parents,  which  is  due  to 
his  teacher,  and  due  to  his  school-mates,  as  to  give  his  principal 
a  less  civil  reply  than  should  have  been  given  to  a  beggar  in  the 
street.  I  hope  no  boy  in  this  school  will  ever  again  forget,  under 
any  circumstances,  to  be  respectful." 

No  amount  of  personal  reproof  administered  to  the  guilty  boy 
could  have  produced  such  beneficial  results  upon  him  as  did  that 
lesson,  which  also  elevated  the  moral  tone  of  the  entire  school. 

Eleventh. — Punishments  should  be  adapted  to  offences.  If  a 
boy  persists  in  annoying  his  companions  during  recesses,  do  not 
allow  him  to  take  a  recess  with  the  other  boys ;  if  he  abuses  any 
liberty  allowed  him,  deprive  him  of  that  liberty  until  he  learns  to 
prize  it  as  he  ought.  Never  assign  a  lesson  as  a  punishment  for 
anything  except  neglect  to  learn  the  lesson.  Ordinary  school  work 
should  not  be  prescribed  as  a  punishment  for  the  common  of- 
fences of  school.  School  lessons  should  have  pleasant  associa- 
tions. To  punish  all  offences  in  the  same  way  will  confound  the 
sense  of  justice  in  children.  Timid  pupils  require  tender  treat- 
ment. 


328  .MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Twelfth. — Do  not  tempt  your  pupils  to  tell  a  falsehood.  Much 
tact  should  be  used  by  the  teacher  in  discovering  which  pupils 
are  guilty  of  wrong  conduct.  Do  not  question  children  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  tempt  them  to  tell  a  falsehood  through  fear  of 
punishment.  If  you  are  uncertain  who  is  in  fault,  do  not  direct- 
ly accuse  any  one  personally.  Don't  say,  "John,  I  believe  you 
did  that,"  unless  you  know  that  he  did.  If  you  feel  it  your  duty 
to  make  a  personal  accusation  against  a  pupil,  let  it  be  done  pri- 
vately with  that  pupil. 

Many  young  children  possess  very  indefinite  ideas  of  truth  and 
falsehood.  Fear  often  leads  such  children  to  say  that  which 
they  know  to  be  false.  Endeavor  to  overcome  this  tendency  to 
tell  a  lie  by  treating  all  confessions  of  wrong  with  gentleness  and 
kindness,  as  in  the  case  of  the  boy  who  broke  the  pane  of  glass, 
and  confessed  it  to  his  teacher.  Remove  all  temptations  to  false- 
hood. Lead  not  your  pupils  into  temptation,  but  seek  to  deliver 
them  from  their  evil  tendencies. 

Govern  your  school  without  making  the  government  so  promi- 
nent that  it  is  burdensome  to  good  children.  Make  your  govern- 
ment light  by  teaching  the  pupils  to  govern  themselves. 

Thirteenth. — Develop  the  feeling  of  self-respect  in  your  pupils. 
To  do  this  most  effectively,  treat  them  with  respect  at  all  times. 
Let  them  feel  that  their  good  conduct  is  respected  by  you,  and 
that  they  can  make  themselves  worthy  of  respect  from  all  who 
know  them. 

If  a  boy  be  suspected,  if  his  feelings,  tastes,  and  acts  are  treated 
with  contempt  or  ridicule,  he  will  lose  respect  for  you,  for  others, 
and  for  himself.  A  boy  who  is  continually  told  that  he  is  bad 
will  come  to  believe  it,  and  act  accordingly. 

When  praising  a  child,  do  it  for  his  good  actions  and  right  mo- 
tives. Praise  honest  efforts,  not  mere  ability.  Praise  every  child 
who  strives  diligently  to  make  good  use  of  his  abilities.  Take 
care  that  you  do  not  develop  a  love  of  approbation  into  a  love  of 
mere  flattery  by  giving  praise  when  it  is  not  deserved. 

Censure  should  be  just,  and  free  from  bitterness.  Avoid  ridi- 
cule. Conceit  and  vanity  may  sometimes  need  to  be  lowered 


MOKAL  TRAINING  AND  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  329 

by  good-humored  ridicule ;  but  this  is  a  dangerous  remedy,  and 
should  be  seldom  employed. 

Fourteenth. — Lead  pupils  to  overcome  idleness  by  pointing  to 
its  evils.  Check  idleness  by  appropriate  privations  that  result 
from  it.  Let  children  understand  that  idle  habits  clothe  men  and 
women  in  rags. 

Fifteenth. — Mischief  may  be  checked  by  causing  pupils  to  feel 
its  effects  upon  themselves.  When  injury  to  property  is  the  re- 
sult of  mischief,  require  complete  restoration  by  the  doer  of  the 
mischief. 

There  are  many  difficulties  which  the  teacher  will  meet  in  the 
management  of  his  pupils.  One  of  the  most  troublesome  to  re- 
move is  that  of  sulkiness.  One  mode  of  overcoming  this  unfort- 
unate habit  is  to  allow  the  pupil's  sullehness  to  subside  by  tiring 
him  of  his  own  unhappiness.  By  awakening  bright  and  cheerful 
thoughts  in  the  minds  of  your  pupils,  harmony  of  the  feelings 
may  be  restored,  and  sulkiness  overcome.  Lead  the  reason  of 
the  pupils  to  gain  control  of  their  feelings,  and  thus  influence  the 
will  to  direct  them  in  the  right  way.  In  attempting  to  do  this, 
you  must  make  haste  slowly. 

Love  of  knowledge — that  natural  desire  of  the  child  to  know 
something  about  everything  that  he  sees — is  one  of  the  means  of 
good  discipline,  and  the  teacher  should  aim  to  present  instruction 
so  as  to  gratify  this  desire. 

Ascertaining  what  motives  may  be  properly  used  for  securing 
attention,  and  leading  children  to  right  conduct,  constitutes  an 
important  part  of  good  school  discipline. 

The  example  of  the  teacher  has  a  most  powerful  influence  on 
the  discipline  of  the  school.  The  tones  of  voice,  the  language 
used,  the  manner  of  treating  the  pupils,  the  disposition,  orderly 
habits,  and  neatness — all  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  pupils. 
Children  try  to  imitate  justice,  kindness,  truthfulness,  dignity, 
neatness,  and  refinement,  as  they  see  it  in  the  daily  acts  of  their 
teacher. 

The  little  girl  who  said,  "  Mother,  I  try  to  love  my  teacher, 
but  she  is  so  cross,  and  scolds  so  much,  I  cannot  love  her,"  is 


330  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

a  sad  criticism  on  too  many  who  fail  to  find  pleasure  in  their 
work. 

"  I  love  to  go  to  school  now  ;  my  new  teacher  is  so  kind  to 
us ;  I  mean  to  do  all  I  can  to  please  her,"  is  a  commendation  that 
all  teachers  should  try  to  deserve  from  the  children  under  their 
care.  "Love,  Hope,  and  Patience"  will  enable  you  to  enjoy  the 
sunlight  of  happy  faces. 

"The  main  object  of  moral  training  is  to  give  a  right  direc- 
tion to  the  action  of  the  moral  powers,  to  encourage  virtuous 
inclinations,  sentiments,  and  passions,  and  to  repress  those  that 
are  evil.  It  is  to  cultivate  habits  of  truthfulness,  obedience,  in- 
dustry, temperance,  prudence,  and  respect  for  the  rights  of 
others,  with  a  view  to  the  formation  of  good  character. 

"  The  great  object  in  moral  training,  like  that  of  physical  and 
intellectual  education,  is  to  develop  force,  with  a  view  to  the 
pupil's  self-action.  Unless  this  point  is  gained,  little  is  gained. 
The  pupil's  character  is  not  to  be  one  merely  for  holiday  show, 
but  for  the  daily  duties  of  life ;  a  character  which  will  not  be  the 
sport  of  every  wind  of  doctrine,  but  one  in  which  virtue — moral 
strength — is  firmly  embodied.  Such  a  character  can  only  be 
formed  by  making  the  child  himself  a  co-operator  in  the  process 
of  its  formation."* 

*  Lecture  on  the  Theory  or  Science  of  Education,  by  Joseph  Payne. 


SCIENCE  OF  COMMON  THINGS.  331 


SCIENCE  OF  COMMON  THINGS. 

ATTENTION  to  common  tilings,  and  to  the  principles 
employed  in  the  construction  and  operations  of  playthings 
for  children,  is  a  most  valuable  means  for  leading  them 
to  form  habits  of  intelligent  observation,  and  cultivate 
their  common-sense.  The  knowledge  acquired  by  making 
observations  and  experiments  upon  common  things  is  the 
beginning  of  the  development  of  common-sense,  and  of 
scientific  knowledge.  Science  is  common-sense  perfected. 

When  a  child  observes  the  nature  of  a  new  toy,  and 
makes  experiments  to  see  what  can  be  done  with  it,  his 
method  of  procedure  is  the  same  in  character  as  that  by 
which  great  results  in  science  are  obtained.  The  way  to 
science  is  through  a  knowledge  of  common  things. 

The  purpose  of  introducing  the  subject  of  common 
things  distinct  from  those  relating  specially  to  animals, 
plants,  minerals,  etc.,  is  that  thereby  the  attention  of 
teachers  may  be  directed  to  a  source  of  very  valuable 
materials  which  are  admirably  adapted  for  the  training  of 
children  to  gain  scientific  knowledge,  and  to  understand 
facts  and  laws  in  nature  that  belong  to  the  department  of 
science  known  as  physics,  or  natural  philosophy.  Toward 
the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  the  following  sug- 
gestive hints  are  given. 

The  atmosphere  is  the  air  surrounding  the  earth. 
We  breathe  it,  and  move  about  in  it,  but  cannot  see  it ;  it 
is  invisible  and  transparent ;  it  has  weight;  it  presses  in 


332  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT- TEACHING. 

all  directions,  upward  as  well  as  downward ;  it  is  com- 
pressible and  elastic;  it  expands  by  heat,  and  contracts  by 
cold;  it  acquires  force  by  heat,  and  also  by  compression; 
it  conveys  sound ;  things  lighter  than  air  will  rise  up- 
ward in  it,  as  a  cork  rises  upward  through  water,  after 
being  forced  beneath  it. 

These  facts  can  be  readily  illustrated  by  simple  experi- 
ments with  familiar  things,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing suggestions : 

Air  is  .Invisible  and  Transparent. — These  facts  will  be 
understood  by  reminding  the  pupils  that  they  see  through 
air,  but  cannot  see  it. 

Air  has  Weight. — The  atmosphere  is  attracted  by  the 
earth  with  sufficient  power  to  cause  it  to  have  weight 
equal  to  fifteen  pounds  on  each  square  inch.  This  weight 
is  observed  by  the  force  of  its  pressure  on  a  surface. 

The  Boy's  Sucker. — The  pressure  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  boy's  sucker,  which  is  made  of  a  circular  piece  of  sole- 
leather,  with  a  string  fastened  to  its  centre.  When  this 
piece  of  leather  is  moistened  and  pressed  upon  a  smooth 
stone,  so  as  to  force  all  the  air  from  between  the  leather 
and  the  stone,  and  the  string  is  pulled,  a  vacuum  is  formed 
under  the  centre  of  the  leather,  but  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  causes  the  surrounding  portions  of  the  leather 
to  adhere  to  the  stone  with  considerable  force. 

Ilow  Flies  Walk  on  the  Ceiling. — The  feet  of  flies  have 
a  contrivance  which  acts  somewhat  like  the  boy's  sucker ; 
and  this  enables  them  to  walk  on  the  ceiling. 

How  the  Pump  Raises  Water. — It  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  atmosphere  presses  water  into  the  space  from 
which  air  has  been  exhausted  that  the  common  pump 
raises  water  from  the  well.  As  the  air  is  drawn  from  the 
tube  by  the  valves  attached  to  the  piston-rod,  the  water 
flows  up  to  fill  the  place. 


SCIENCE   OF  COMMON  THINGS.  333 

The  Syphon. — The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  causes  a 
fluid  to  flow  through  a  syphon,  while  the  end  of  the  long 
branch  of  the  syphon  is  lower  than  the  end  of  the  short 
branch. 

The  upward  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  may  be  illus- 
trated by  tilling  a  small  tumbler  with  water,  covering  the 
top  with  a  card,  placing  the  hand  on  the  card  and  turning 
the  whole  upside  down,  then  removing  the  hand  gently. 
The  card  will  remain  firmly  pressed  against  the  tumbler 
by  the  atmosphere,  and  keep  the  water  from  flowing  out. 

The  external  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  prevents  a 
liquid  from  running  out  of  a  barrel  which  has  no  vent- 
hole,  or  place  for  the  air  to  enter  above  the  liquid.  Some- 
times tea  will  not  pour  out  of  the  teapot  because  the  air 
cannot  enter  above  the  tea.  Water  will  remain  in  a  straw 
or  long  tube  when  the  upper  end  is  closed,  because  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure  from  below. 

The  hoy's  pop-gun  will  illustrate  that  air  is  compressi- 
ble and  elastic.  When  the  cork  or  wad  is  pushed  in  by 
the  piston  the  air  within  is  compressed  into  a  smaller 
space,  until  the  force  which  the  air  accumulates  by  the 
pressure  becomes  so  great  that  it  drives  out  the  cork  or 
wad  at  the  opposite  end  with  a  popping  noise.  The  noise 
is  produced  by  the  sudden  expansion  of  the  air  as  it  leaves 
the  tube. 

Other  illustrations  of  the  compressibility  of  air,  and  its 
power  of  resistance,  may  be  made  as  follows :  Invert  an 
empty  tumbler  or  a  glass  jar,  placing  its  mouth  on  the 
surface  of  water,  then  let  a  pupil  press  down  upon  the 
jar,  and  try  to  force  it  into  the  water  so  that  the  wa- 
ter shall  fill  it,  and  observe  that  the  water  rises  a  little 
higher  in  the  glass  as  the  pressure  upon  it  is  increased, 
and  that  the  water  inside  the  glass  cannot  be  made  to  rise 
as  high  as  the  water  on  the  outside.  This  is  owing  to 


33-i  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  presence  of  the  air  in  the  glass,  which  cannot  be  com- 
pressed so  as  to  allow  the  water  to  fill  the  glass. 

The  toy  -  ~balloon,  or  a  bladder  nearly  filled  with  air, 
when  exposed  to  heat,  will  illustrate  the  expansion  of  air, 
and  the  force  produced  by  the  expansion.  By  removing 
the  heated  toy-balloon  or  bladder  to  a  cold  place,  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  air  contracts  by  cold.  If  a  bladder 
be  blown  full  of  air,  then  exposed  to  heat  for  a  short  time, 
the  force  produced  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  within  it 
will  cause  the  bladder  to  explode  with  a  loud  report. 

Air  Conveys  Sound. — Where  there  is  no  air  sound  is 
not  heard.  Sound  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  sub- 
stances. It  moves  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  about 
1100  feet  in  a  second.  It  moves  through  water  about 
four  times  as  fast  as  through  the  air,  and  through  a 
wall  about  three  and  one-half  times  as  fast;  through  gold 
about  five  times  as  fast;  through  silver  about  seven  and 
three-fourth  times  as  fast;  through  copper  about  nine  and 
two-third  times  as  fast;  through  wood,  lengthwise,  about 
ten  times  as  fast ;  through  iron  about  fifteen  times  as  fast 
as  through  the  air. 

O 

Light  moves  about  190,000  miles  while  sound  moves 
1100  feet,  so  that  practically  from  any  object  on  the  earth, 
within  the  range  of  vision,  light  would  pass  to  our  eyes 
instantly.  The  following  incidents  will  aid  in  illustrating 
that  sound  moves  much  slower  than  light : 

Flash  and  Report  of  a  Gun. — When  a  gun  is  fired  at 
a  distance  from  the  observer,  the  flash  will  be  seen  several 
seconds  before  the  report  is  heard.  When  the  steam- 
whistle  of  a  distant  locomotive  is  blown,  the  steam  will 
be  seen  issuing  from  the  whistle  some  seconds  before  the 
sound  is  heard  by  the  distant  observer. 

Lightning  and  Thunder. — By  observing  the  number  of 
seconds  that  intervene  between  the  flash  of  lightning  and 


SCIENCE  OF  COMMON  THINGS.  335 

the  thunder — which  may  be  ascertained  by  counting  slow- 
ly— the  distance  of  the  thunder-cloud  may  be  estimated 
by  reckoning  one-fifth  of  a  mile  for  each  second  of  time. 
Wiiile  four  or  five  seconds  of  time  intervene  between  the 
lightning  and  the  thunder,  the  cloud  is  too  far  away  to 
produce  any  harm  in  the  vicinity  of  the  observer. 

Sound  Conveyed  by  Solids. — If  you  place  your  ear  at 
the  end  of  a  long  timber,  while  some  one  scratches  with  a 
pin  the  other  end,  you  can  hear  the  scratching  distinctly. 
If  you  place  your  ear  against  a  long  solid  wall  of  brick,  at 
one  end  of  it,  and  let  some  one  strike  the  other  end  of  the 
wTall,  you  will  hear  two  reports,  the  first  one  through  the 
wall,  and  a  second  one  through  the  air.  The  earth  also 
conveys  sound.  Indians  understand  this,  and  by  placing 
their  ears  on  the  ground  ascertain  the  approach  of  an  en- 
emy, or  of  a  herd  of  buffaloes. 

These  sounds  are  conveyed  by  the  vibratory  motions  of 
the  particles  of  the  solids;  yet  the  solid  as  a  whole  does 
not  move.  The  vibrations  of  the  particles  take  place  with- 
in such  minute  spaces  that  their  movements  are  not  per- 
ceptible as  motion. 

A  Poker  and  a  Boiling  Kettle. — If  you  wish  to  ascer- 
tain whether  or  not  a  teakettle  is  boiling,  place  one  end 
of  an  iron  poker  on  the  lid,  and  the  other  end  to  your  ear, 
and  if  the  water  in  the  teakettle  be  boiling,  the  kind  of 
sound  conducted  by  this  iron  rod  will  inform  you. 

An  echo  is  sound  reflected.  Sometimes  the  same  sound 
is  reflected  two  or  three  times,  and  thus  produces  two  or 
three  separate  echoes. 

Vapor  arising  from  wet  clothing  is  coolj  for  this  rea- 
son pupils  should  not  be  required  to  sit  in  wet  clothing  at 
school,  but  should  be  allowed  to  move  about  while  the 
clothing  is  drying. 

The  direction  of  a  gentle  wind  may  be  ascertained  by 


336  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

wetting  one  side  of  the  hand,  holding  it  up  and  turning 
it  slowly  until  the  wet  side  feels  cool.  The  moisture 
evaporates  faster  on  the  side  of  the  wind,  and  causes  that 
side  to  feel  cooler. 

A  wet  towel  wrapped  around  an  ice-pitcher,  or  a  bottle 
containing  any  fluid,  will  keep  it  cooler  than  a  dry  towel, 
because  evaporation  keeps  the  wet  towel  cool. 

Water  Contracts  and  Expands. — When  hot  water  cools 
it  contracts  until  it  reaches  a  temperature  of  about  39°. 
As  it  grows  colder  from  this  point  it  expands.  At  32°  it 
freezes,  and  in  the  solid  state  it  expands  much  more  rap- 
idly, and  with  such  force  as  to  burst  the  pipe  or  vessel 
that  contains  it. 

Heat  and  Cold  change  the  Volume,  ~but  not  the  Weight. — 
Water  changes  in  volume  by  heat  and  by  cold,  but  does 
not  change  in  weight  by  heat  or  by  cold.  A  cubic  inch 
of  water  weighs  about  252  grains.  When  this  amount 
of  water  is  changed  into  steam,  its  volume  is  1700  cubic 
inches,  but  its  weight  remains  as  before,  252  grains. 
When  the  cubic  inch  of  water  is  changed  into  ice,  its 
volume  is  one  and  one -eleventh  cubic  inches,  but  its 
weight  remains  as  before,  252  grains.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  neither  the  heat  nor  the  cold  which  produce 
these  changes  can  possess  weight. 

Heat  is  caused  by  the  vibratory  movements  of  the  par- 
ticles of  matter.  Each  vibration  is  very  rapid,  backward 
and  forward,  within  a  very  short  space.  These  vibrations 
are  so  minute  that  they  are  scarcely  perceptible  as  motion. 
The  boy  knows  by  experience  that  a  metal  button  can  be 
made  hot  by  rubbing  it  on  any  substance ;  that  two  sticks 
can  be  made  hot  by  rubbing  them  against  each  other  brisk- 
ly. He  may  learn  by  experience  that  two  pieces  of  ice  can 
be  melted  by  the  heat  produced  by  rubbing  them  together. 

A.ir  in  Water. — The  presence  of  air  in  water  may  be 


WATER.  337 

noticed  by  leaving  water  in  a  glass  or  pitcher  until  it  be- 
comes warm,  when  numerous  small  bubbles  appear  around 
the  sides,  as  the  warmth  expands  the  air. 

The  rapid  expansion  of  the  air  by  heat,  and  its  rising  in 
bubbles  to  the  surface,  produces  boiling. 

Salt-water  requires  more  Heat  to  cause  it  to  Boil  than 
Fresh-water. — For  this  reason  a  little  salt  put  into  water 
used  for  cooking  potatoes  will  make  them  cook  sooner, 
after  the  water  boils,  because  of  the  greater  degree  of 
heat  required  to  cause  salt-water  to  boil. 

Water  Communicates  Pressure  in  all  Directions. — A 
small  column  of  water,  thirty  feet  in  height,  will  press 
with  great  force  upon  a  confined  body  of  water  at  the 
bottom  of  the  column.  If  the  pressure  of  the  small  col- 
umn be  equal  to  1000  pounds,  and  the  body  of  water  at 
the  base  be  ten  times  the  size  of  that  in  the  column,  the 
pressure  on  the  confined  body  of  water  at  the  base  will 
be  10,000  pounds  in  each  direction.  The  pressure  of  a 
body  of  level  water  is  only  downward  and  sidewise. 

Specific  Gravity. — If  a  substance  be  of  the  same  weight 
as  water,  bulk  for  bulk,  it  will  neither  sink  nor  swim,  but 
move  about  in  the  water  as  if  it  had  no  weight.  If  a 
body  weighs  ten  ounces  in  the  air,  and  only  nine  ounces 
in  water,  it  is  found  that  the  bulk  of  water  equal  in  size 
to  the  body  weighs  only  one  ounce,  and  that  the  body  is 
ten  times  as  heavy  as  water ;  therefore,  its  specific  gravity 
is  said  to  ~be  ten.  If  any  body  is  just  twice  as  heavy  as 
the  same  bulk  of  water,  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  two. 

The  Mechanical  Powers. — The  lever  and  its  uses  may 
be  illustrated  with  a  ruler,  or  even  a  pen-holder.  The 
wedge  may  be  illustrated  by  the  blade  of  a  knife,  or  by  a 
piece  of  wood  cut  into  the  shape  of  the  wedge.  An  in- 
clined plane  may  be  illustrated  by  the  use  of  a  slate,  or 
a  book,  or  a  piece  of  board  ;  a  pulley,  by  ribbon-blocks  ; 

15 


338  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  wheel  and  axle,  by  spools ;  the  screw,  by  a  part  of  an 
auger  or  of  a  wooden  screw. 

The  simpler  the  objects  for  the  illustrations,  the  greater 
will  be  the  probability  that  the  pupils  will  try  to  make 
experiments  to  illustrate  the  same  fact  at  home,  and  thus 
gain  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  lesson. 

A  pair  of  stilts  ;  a  seesaw  ;  the  balancing  of  a  pole  on 
one  end,  in  the  handj  the  balancing  of  a  ruler  across  the 
finger ;  the  suspension  of  a  common  card  by  a  string — 
each  furnish  practical  illustrations  of  the  importance  of 
giving  attention  to  the  centre  of  gravity. 

Let  these  lessons  relating  to  the  Science  of  Common 
Things  be  conducted  in  a  manner  that  will  require  the 
pupils  to  take  part  in  the  experiments  and  illustrations, 
and  let  the  character  be  such  that  the  pupils  can  make 
the  same  experiments  at  home,  and  the  instruction  will 
be  thorough  and  practical. 

The  minds  of  children  are  hungry  for  this  sort  of 
knowledge;  and  the  teacher  who  fails  to  point  out  the 
way  to  it,  and  neglects  to  supply  the  opportunity  for 
gratifying  it,  leaves  undone  a  most  important  part  of  his 
work. 

Facts  relating  to  philosophy  and  science  should  be  pre- 
sented to  children  first  through  experiments.  When  the 
range  of  possibilities  in  school-room  work  has  been  reach- 
ed in  this  direction,  other  important  facts,  to  supply  fur- 
ther knowledge  of  the  subject  as  a  whole,  may  be  taught 
empirically,  especially  where  the  pupil's  lack  of  knowl- 
edge in  other  kindred  departments  of  science  prevents 
his  knowing  these  important  and  needed  facts  through 
other  means. 

N.  B.  —  For  further  information  relative  to  the  Science  of  Common 
Things,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  Hooker's  Natural  Philosophy,  published 
by  Harper  &  Brothers;  also  to  the  Science  Pi'imers—" Introductory "  and 
"  Physics  "—published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 


SCIENCE   OF  EDUCATION. 


SCIENCE  OF  EDUCATION. 


SCIENCE   OF  EDUCATION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  laws  of  human  development — the  order  in  which 
the  faculties  of  children  unfold,  the  subjects  and  processes 
most  suitable  to  educe  mental  activity  and  development, 
and  the  modes  by  which  the  mind  gains  knowledge — are 
among  the  most  important  things  to  be  regarded  in  the 
building  up  of  a  Science  of  Education.  By  means  of  a 
knowledge  of  such  a  science,  the  methods  for  education 
will  not  be  left  to  mere  chance  as  to  their  fitness,  and  the 
teacher  need  not  grope  in  the  dark  to  find  his  true  work. 
On  this  science  the  art  of  teaching  may  be  founded,  with 
a  series  of  training  .exercises  for  the  proper  development 
of  the  human  faculties  in  the  several  stages  of  progress 
from  infancy  to  maturity,  the  use  of  which  will  render 
success  in  the  work  of  education  certain. 

Successful  culture  of  the  mind  requires  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  its  powers,  of  their  tendencies,  arid  of  the 
manner  in  which  these  are  affected  by  external  agencies. 
To  attain  this  knowledge,  we  must  observe  the  manner 
of  the  child's  development  by  the  aid  of  the  sciences  of 
physiology  and  psychology ;  but  our  chief  investigations 
must  be  made  through  psychology. 

Methods  of  education  can  be  true  only  so  far  as  they 
harmonize  with  the  modes  and  conditions  under  which 
the  mind  attains  knowledge.  Accuracy  in  observing  the 
modes  and  conditions  of  mental  development:,  and  skill  in 
selecting  and  using  the  appropriate  means  of  education, 
are  essential  to  the  complete  success  of  a  teacher.  But 


342  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  attainment  of  such  accuracy  and  skill  requires  a  long 
period  of  time,  and  many  years  of  observation  and  exper- 
iment on  the  part  of  each  teacher,  when  left  to  acquire 
them  without  aid  from  the  experience  of  others ;  and  dur- 
ing this  time  a  multitude  of  mistakes  may  be  made,  each 
of  which,  sad  as  it  might  be  for  the  teacher,  would  be  of 
far  greater  injury  to  the  pupils ;  hence  it  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  the  greatest  importance  that  steps  be  taken  toward 
guiding  the  inexperienced  teacher  in  the  way  to  success- 
ful instruction,  and  teaching  him  how  to  determine  wheth- 
er a  method  be  a  true  or  a  false  one — whether  it  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  result  in  education,  or  lead  the  learner 
to  final  disappointment. 

To  aid  the  teacher  in  determining  the  true  character  of 
the  work  to  be  performed,  and  to  point  out  the  way  to 
success  in  the  art  of  teaching,  is  my  aim  in  presenting 
that  which  follows,  under  the  title  of  the  Science  of  Edu- 
cation. For  the  attainment  of  this  purpose  I  have  availed 
myself  of  materials  from  various  sources  of  acknowledged 
authority,  and  woven  these  into  such  form  as  seemed  best 
fitted  to  accomplish  the  end  in  view. 

In  attempting  to  set  forth  such  principles  as  underlie 
all  true  educational  processes,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to 
describe  some  of  the  powers  of  the  human  mind,  and  to 
explain  terms  used  in  speaking  of  the  various  modes  of 
mental  activity.  In  endeavoring  to  do  this,  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  present  a  treatise  on  mental  philosophy,  nor 
to  explain  all  the  activities  of  the  mind,  but  shall  try 
rather  to  describe  the  most  important  forms  of  mental  ac- 
tion, and  the  modes  and  means  by  which  these  develop 
the  powers  of  mind,  so  that  teachers  may  obtain  clearer 
ideas — Of  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged; 

Of  the  nature  of  the  materials  with  which  they  deal; 

Of  the  means  and  modes  by  which  their  aims  may  be 
more  completely  attained. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  TERMS.  343 


DEFINITIONS   OF   EDUCATIONAL   TERMS. 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  consider  the  powers  of  the  mind, 
I  will  define  some  of  the  terms  commonly  used  in  relation 
to  education,  and  thus  endeavor  to  make  them  less  vague 
and  uncertain  in  meaning  and  use.  I  will  also  add  the 
most  important  principles  of  education,  and  give  a  few 
suggestions  concerning  their  application  to  methods  of 
teaching. 

Education  comprehends  all  the  influences  which  oper- 
ate on  the  human  being,  stimulating  his  faculties  to  action, 
forming  his  habits,  moulding  his  character,  and  making 
him  what  he  is.* 

Whatever  helps  to  shape  the  human  being,  to  make  the 
individual  what  he  is,  or  hinder  him  from  being  what  he 
is  not,  is  part  of  his  education.f 

The  general  object  of  education  is  to  form  the  man,  not 
the  lawyer — the  man,  not  the  physician — the  man,  not  the 
merchant,  nor  the  mechanic,  but  the  true  man,  including 
that  which  is  noblest  and  best  in  him. 

The  Science  of  Education  consists  in  a  knowledge  of 
those  principles  of  psychology  which  account  for  the  proc- 
esses by  which  the  mind  gains  knowledge.  Its  founda- 
tion extends  down  to  the  laws  of  our  being  and  growth. 
It  embraces  the  principles  of  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
actions,  and  all  suitable  means  for  the  proper  development 
of  the  human  being.  It  is  a  standard  by  which  methods 
of  education  may  he  tested.  Science  tells  us  what  a  thing 

*  Joseph  Payne.  t  J.  S.  Mill. 


344  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

is,  and  why  it  is  what  it  is.  It  treats  of  the  nature  of  the 
thing,  of  its  relations  to  other  things,  and  of  the  laws  of 
its  being. 

Pedagogy,  or  Pedagogics,  are  names  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  science  of  education. 

A  Principle  of  Education  is  a  general  truth  gained 
by  an  analytical  investigation  into  the  nature  of  the  child 
as  a  thinking  being.  It  is  a  law  of  the  rnind,  and  a  rule 
of  its  action. 

The  following  established  fact,  or  law,  constitutes  one 
of  the  important  principles  of  education  :  Proper  exercise 
of  any  bodily  organ,  or  any  power  of  the  mind,  increases 
its  strength. 

Teaching  is  one  of  the  most  important  means  for  car- 
rying forward  the  work  of  education.  It  implies  the 
proper  guidance  of  the  learner  to  the  sources  of  knowl- 
edge, and  training  him  in  getting  and  properly  using  that 
knowledge. 

Training,  in  education,  implies  exercises  of  the  pow- 
ers of  mind  in  connection  with  things  observed  and  facts 
taught.  Its  purpose  is  to  give  such  facility  and  habits  of 
action  as  will  increase  quickness  in  perceiving,  readiness 
in  remembering,  accuracy  in  reasoning,  and  skill  in  doing. 

The  Art  of  Teaching  is  the  application  of  the  laws  of 
the  science  of  education.  It  implies  skill  in  teaching  each 
subject  by  the  use  of  proper  methods,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  education.  It  is  founded  on  the 
science  of  education,  and  the  science  of  education  is 
founded  on  the  science  of  the  mind.  Art  in  teaching 
takes  the  laws  which  are  established  in  science  and  ap- 
plies them  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  purposes  of  edu- 
cation. Art  is  Man's  work  added  to  Nature's  work. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  EDUCATIONAL  TERMS.  345 

A  Mode  of  Teaching  signifies  the  way  in  which  a 
thing  or  subject  is  taught.  It  relates  more  directly  to 
single  actions  and  to  single  topics.  It  means  less  than 
the  term  "method."  A  mode  of  teaching  may  be  ex- 
cellent, or  it  may  be  in  violation  of  all  principles  of 
education.  • 

Manner  of  Teaching  implies  individual  action.  It  is 
the  usual  way  in  which  any  particular  teacher  does  the 
work.  It  does  not  relate  so  much  to  a  mode  of  teaching 
as  to  the  way  of  using  a  mode  or  a  method. 

A  Method  of  Teaching  implies  an  orderly  use  of 
modes  of  teaching.  It  is  an  arrangement  for  reaching  a 
given  point  in  the  work  by  a  series  of  acts  or  steps  which 
it  is  expected  will  lead  to  that  point.  A  method  may  be 
good  or  bad.  When  not  founded  on  correct  principles 
of  education,  it  may  lead  to  results  widely  different  from 
those  intended  by  the  teacher. 

A  Plan  of  Teaching  implies  more  than  a  method.  It 
is  an  arrangement  which  may  include  the  use  of  different 
methods  for  teaching  one  or  more  subjects — the  methods 
being  so  connected  as  to  form  a  chain  of  mutual  depen- 
dencies. A  plan  of  teaching  may  be  limited  to  a  single 
class,  or  extended  to  all  the  classes  of  a  school. 

A  System  of  Education  implies  more  than  a  plan  of 
teaching,  and  more  than  methods.  It  includes  plans  for 
providing  the  means  of  education  in  several  subjects  for 
many  schools.  A  system  of  education  may  be  good,  or 
bad,  or  incomplete.  The  kind  must  be  determined  by  its 
degree  of  conformity  to  the  principles  of  the  science  of 
education. 

Development  implies  a  gradual  unfolding  of  that 
which  is  hidden  or  unknown;  and  it  also  relates  to  ex- 


346  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

pansion  and  growth.  Development  worJc,  in  teaching,  sig- 
nifies a  laying  open  of  the  subject  by  degrees,  so  that  the 
pupil  shall  discover  the  idea,  the  fact,  or  the  principle  to 
be  learned.  The  development,  expansion,  or  growth  takes 
place  with  the  idea,  the  thought,  and  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  not  with  the  things,  nor  the  words.  Ideas  may  be 
developed :  words  must  be  given  ;  they  cannot  be  devel- 
oped. The  meaning  of  words  can  be  developed  by  ex- 
panding the  ideas  which  they  may  represent. 

Illustration  signifies  a  making  clear,  easy  to  perceive 
or  apprehend.  In  teaching,  it  relates  to  the  use  of  things, 
pictures,  and  representations  for  exhibiting  the  idea,  or 
fact,  in  a  clear  light,  so  that  it  may  be  readily  understood. 
It  belongs  especially  to  the  period  of  elementary  education, 
yet  it  is  also  appropriate  and  valuable  for  advanced  work 
of  instruction. 

Explanation  signifies  a  making  level,  clearing  the  way, 
removing  obstructions.  In  teaching,  it  relates  more  to 
the  use  of  language,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  than  to 
things  and  representations ;  hence  it  is  more  appropriate 
as  a  means  of  teaching  pupils  who  have  acquired  a  pretty 
full  vocabulary  of  words  that  clearly  symbolize  to  them 
a  great  number  and  variety  of  ideas.  It  is  not  a  suitable 
means  of  instruction  for  young  pupils. 

Rote-teaching  signifies  causing  pupils  to  commit  to 
memory,  by  rote,  words  that  represent  no  definite  ideas 
to  the  mind ;  learning  words  as  the  parrot  learns  them 
— by  sound — without  their  sense.  Rote-teaching  is  usual- 
ly accompanied  with  concert  repetitions. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION.  347 


PRINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION. 

I.  THE  development  of  the  mind  begins  with  the  re- 
ception of  sensations ;  and  is  carried  forward  by  percep- 
tions, and  the  formation  of  ideas. 

II.  The  action  and  reaction  between  the  external  stim- 
ulants— material  objects — and  the  mind's  inherent  pow- 
ers constitutes  the  process  of  natural  education.     The  in- 
fluence of  things  upon  mind,  and  of  mind  upon  things, 
educates. 

III.  The  intellectual  action  and  exercise,  in  which  the 
learner's  education  essentially  consists  are  performed  by 
himself.     It  is  what  he  does  for  himself — his  personal  ex- 
periences— not  that  which  is  done  for  him,  that  educates 
him. 

IY.  Ideas  gained  by  personal  experience  are  subjected 
by  the  mind  to  certain  processes  of  elaboration,  as  classifi- 
cation, association,  abstraction,  generalization,  judgment, 
and  reasoning.  Thus,  ideas  are  incorporated  with  the  or- 
ganic life  of  the  learner's  mind. 

Y.  Words  are  the  conventional  signs,  the  objective 
representations  of  ideas.  Their  value  to  the  learner  de- 
pends on  his  previous  possession  of  the  ideas  they  rep- 
resent. Words,  without  ideas,  are  not  knowledge.  There- 
fore obtain  ideas  first,  then  words  to  represent  them. 

YI.  Memory  is  the  result  of  attention ;  and  attention 
is  the  concentration  of  all  the  powers  of  the  mind  on  the 
matter  to  be  learned.  The  art  of  memory  is  the  art  of 
paying  attention.  Exact  and  concise  language  increases 
the  power  of  remembering. 


34:8  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

YII.  The  mind,  in  gaining  knowledge  for  itself,  at- 
tends first  to  the  whole,  then  subdivides  that  into  its 
parts,  and  from  particular  facts  infers  general  truths.  It 
discovers  facts  by  analysis,  but  transmits  them  to  others 
by  synthesis.  The  teacher  should  follow  this  natural 
order,  leading  the  pupil  to  the  fact  by^  analysis,  but  re- 
quiring him  to  show  by  synthesis  that  lie  has  gained  it. 

VIII.  Education  is  the  cultivation  of  all  the  native  pow- 
ers of  the  child  by  exercising  them  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  his  being,  with  a  view  to  development  and  growth. 
Repeated  exercises  of  bodily  organs  give  ease  of  action, 
and  produce  habits.     Proper  exercise  of  the  mental  pow- 
ers give  clearness  of  perception  and  certainty  of  knowl- 
edge.    Proper  exercise  of  any  bodily  organ,  or  mental  or 
moral  power,  increases  its  strength. 

IX.  Right  methods  of  education  make  the  pupil  an  ac- 
tive doer,  not  a  passive  receiver ;  make  him  learn  directly 
from  things  and  acts,  and  become  his  own  teacher. 

X.  The  proper  function  of  the  teacher  is  that  of  a 
stimulator  and  guide  of  the  learner's  work,  in  a  systematic 
building  of  knowledge  into  the  mind,  with  a  definite  ob- 
ject.    He  should  first  discover  the  need  of  the   child, 
awaken  in  him  a  desire  to  satisfy  it,  then  lead  him  to  the 
source  of  supply,  and  teach  him  to  help  himself. 

XI.  The  teacher's  true  work,  in  the  process  of  instruc- 
tion, starts  from  that  which  is  known  to  the  learner,  and 
proceeds  to  the  kindred  unknown  which  constitutes  the 
matter  to  be  learned.     It  causes   that  which  is   newly 
learned  to  become  intimately  associated  with  the  pre- 
viously known. 

XII.  Unknown  objects  and  words  can  be  illustrated 
and  explained  only  by  well-known  objects  and  words. 
Teach  unfamiliar  things  by  the  help  of  familiar  things. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS.  349 


DIRECTIONS   FOR   TEACHERS. 

BY  means  of  careful  attention  to  proper  directions  and 
suggestions,  relative  to  methods  and  principles  of  educa- 
tion, inexperienced  teachers  may  secure  valuable  guides 
for  leading  themselves — 

To  use  correct  methods  of  instruction. 
To  acquire  skill  in  the  art  of  teaching. 

Complete  Fitness  for  Teaching  implies  the  combi- 
nation of  knowledge  and  experience  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing qualifications : 

1.  A  'knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  instruction. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  being  to  l>e  taught. 

3.  A  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  education. 

4.  Skill  in  the  use  of  the  best  methods  of  teaching. 

5.  Tact  in  the  'management  of  pupils. 

Mode  of  Procedure. — The  work  of  true  teaching  in- 
cludes in  its  processes  the  following  important  matters, 
and  attention  to  each  in  its  proper  time  and  order. 

The  teacher  must — 

First. — Discover  the  condition  of  the  pupiVs  mind,  and 
its  needs,  as  related  to  both  its  mental  development  and 
the  subject-matter  to  be  taught.  Then  awaken  in  the p^i- 
pil  a  desire  to  know  that  which  he  needs,  and  guide  him 
in  the  way  to  gratify  this  desire ;  and,  while  attending  to 
these,  teach  him  how  to  gain  what  is  thus  sought  concern- 
ing the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson. 

Second. — Ascertain  how  the  different  minds  gain  knowl- 
edge of  the  given  subject, — which  senses  are  chiefly  used 


350  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

for  the  purpose, — and  then  conduct  the  exercises  of  in- 
struction so  as  to  employ  two  or  more  senses,  whenever 
possible,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  attention  and  com- 
pleteness of  knowledge. 

Third. — Begin  the  lesson  with  things,  or  pictures,  and 
facts — not  with  definitions  or  rules.  Bring  the  object, 
or  subject-matter,  with  suitable  illustrations,  into  such  re- 
lations with  the  pupil's  mind  that  each  may  act  on  the 
other  so  as  effectively  to  cause  the  proper  exercise  of 
those  powers  by  which  knowledge  is  gained. 

Fourth. — By  means  of  illustrations  and  questions  lead 
the  child  to  grasp  the  new  idea  or  truth  /  and,  as  soon  as 
that  is  perceived,  teach  the  word  to  express  it,  and  in  a 
manner  that  will  thoroughly  associate  the  word  with  the 
thought. 

Fifth. — Present  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson  in  the 
proper  order,  proceeding  from  that  which  is  already 
known  by  the  learner  to  the  most  nearly  related  un- 
known, and  lead  the  pupil  to  associate  each  newly-learned 
fact  with  what  was  previously  known.  Be  careful  to  dis- 
tinguish between  facts  which  are  new  to  the  pupil  and 
those  that  are  already  familiar  to  him. 

Sixth. —  Unknown  things  and  words  can  ~be  illustrated 
and  explained  only  ~by  known  things  and  words.  Do  not 
attempt,  therefore,  to  illustrate  by  the  use  of  things  not 
familiar  to  the  pupils;  nor  to  teach  the  meaning  of  words 
by  the  use  of  those  not  already  well-known  to  them. 
Never  try  to  illustrate  that  which  is  familiar  by  some- 
thing unfamiliar. 

Seventh. — Ideas  must  be  formed  in  the  learners  mind, 
and  words  given  to  represent  them,  before  they  can  be 
expressed  or  communicated  to  others.  The  child  learns 
by  observation,  examples,  and  practice,  not  by  precepts, 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS.  351 

rules,  or  theory.  Precepts,  rules,  and  theory  aid  him  in 
remembering  that  which  he  learns  by  observation  and 
practice.  Provide  your  pupils  with  abundant  means  of 
learning  by  these  modes,  and  see  that  sufficient  attention 
is  given  to  each. 

Eighth. — When  ideas  of  a  given  subject  cannot  readily 
~be  obtained  directly  through  the  senses,  the  subject-matter 
to  be  taught  may  be  compared  to  some  object  or  fact  al- 
ready familiar  to  the  learner  by  his  own  experience.  In 
using  comparisons  as  a  means  of  illustrating  ideas,  there 
should  exist  a  true  parallelism  between  the  matter  to  be 
explained  and  the  object,  fact,  or  incident  used  for  the  il- 
lustration ;  and  its  application  to  the  case  in  point  should 
be  made  clearly  apparent  to  the  pupil.  Do  not  allow 
your  illustration  to  cover  up  the  subject,  and  hide  the  fact 
to  be  taught,  by  making  the  comparison  or  illustration  too 
elaborate. 

Ninth. — Follow  the  dictates  of  nature,  and  proceed  from 
the  whole  to  its  parts.  Lead  the  child  to  understand 
through  analysis,  and  to  show  that  he  knows  by  synthe- 
sis. Divide  the  difficulties  of  the  subject  into  proper 
steps,  and  thus  enable  your  pupils  to  surmount  them. 
Direct  attention  to  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  to  each  thing 
in  its  appropriate  order.  Do  not  attempt  to  keep  atten- 
tion too  long  upon  one  thing  or  fact. 

Tenth. — Remember  that  activity  is  a  characteristic  of 
childhood,  and  that  the  child  likes  to  try  to  do  what  it 
sees  others  do.  Provide,  therefore,  examples  of  doing 
which  may  be  imitated  by  the  learner.  In  every  lesson, 
where  it  is  practicable,  give  the  pupils  something  to  do 
with  their  hands,  and  require  them  to  say  something  about 
that  which  is  done.  Furnishing  occupation  that  interests 
the  pupils  is  the  best  means  for  maintaining  order. 


352  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Eleventh. — The  attention  of  young  children  should  be 
attracted,  not  forced,  to  the  lesson;  and  the  attention  to 
a  given  subject  should  not  become  burdensome  to  the 
learner.  Activity  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  the 
means  of  securing  attention ;  and  constant  employment 
of  the  pupils  is  another  means.  Partial  attention  of  pu- 
pils implies  partial  teaching. 

Twelfth. — Proper  repetitions  deepen  impressions.  Both 
the  facts  and  the  language  used  to  represent  them  are  made 
secure  in  the  memory  ~by  giving  repeated  attention  to  each. 
Changes  in  the  manner  of  directing  the  attention  of  pu- 
pils to  the  facts,  and  in  the  language  used  for  describing 
them,  may  be  made  with  profit  to  the  learner;  but  in  all 
cases  let  accuracy  and  conciseness  of  language  aid  the 
memory.  Thoroughly  knowing  a  thing  is  the  surest 
way  of  remembering  it. 

Thirteenth. — Do  not  use  formal  questions.  Put  your 
questions  on  each  lesson  in  several  different  forms,  yet 
make  them  definite.  Avoid  leading  questions,  such  as  can 
be  answered  by  yes,  or  no.  Shape  each  succeeding  ques- 
tion with  reference  to  the  answers  previously  given,  and 
the  point  to  be  gained.  Do  not  try  to  draw  from  a  pupil, 
by  questions,  what  he  has  never  taken  in ;  yet  suitable 
questions  may  be  used  to  lead  him  to  discover  that  which 
he  does  not  know.  A  lesson  may  be  reviewed  with  much 
profit  by  requiring  pupils  to  ask  each  other  questions 
concerning  it. 

Fourteenth. — .Language  is  developed  and  cultivated  by 
using  it.  To  use  a  language  is  to  receive  and  express 
ideas  through  it.  Children  should  be  trained  to  hear  and 

O 

understand,  and  to  give  proof  that  they  understand  by 
expressing  their  thoughts  in  clear  and  accurate  language. 
If  you  would  teach  much,  talk  but  little. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS.  353 

Fifteenth. — Train  your  pupils  to  do  exactly  what  you  re- 
quest them  to  do — no  more,  and  no  less.  It  will  cultivate 
habits  of  attention;  of  quick  and  accurate  understanding; 
of  following  directions  correctly,  and  obeying  orders  fully. 
To  accomplish  this  important  result,  let  attention  be  given 
to  secure  it  during  the  exercises  of  reading,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, writing,  passing  books,  using  slates,  marching,  stand- 
ing, sitting,  etc.,  until  the  habit  of  doing  thus  is  formed 
in  all  the  movements  of  the  school.  Such  a  habit  is  the 
corner-stone  of  excellent  discipline.  It  is  the  key  to  suc- 
cess in  maintaining  good  order. 

Sixteenth. — A  summary ',  or  short  review,  should  end  the 
lesson.  During  this  review  all  illustrations  and  aids  to 
perception  should  be  removed,  and  the  pupil  led  to  look 
within  his  own  mind  for  the  new  fact  or  truth  taught  by 
the  lesson.  This  is  an  important  step  in  the  development 
of  mental  power. 

Seventeenth. — Knowing  what  to  teach,  and  knowing  how 
to  teach,  are  two  very  different  things.  Knowing  what  to 
teach  is  an  attainment  of  knowledge.  Knowing  how  to 
teach  is  an  attainment  of  art.  Attend,  therefore,  both  to 
the  knowledge  and  to  the  art  as  the  best  means  of  success 
in  teaching. 

Eighteenth. — Let  your  own  life  and  work  ~be  worthy  of 
imitation  by  your  pupils.  Be  truthful  in  acts  as  well  as 
in  words.  Promptness,  neatness,  painstaking,  politeness, 
and  kindness  may  be  effectively  inculcated  by  your  deeds, 
even  though  your  words  be  few.  "With  children,  things 
seen  are  mightier  than  things  heard,  and  example  is  more 
powerful  than  precept. 

For  more  extended  and  explicit  statements  relating  to 
the  nature  of  the  tilings  to  be  taught,  for  a  fuller  exposition 
of  the  principles  of  education,  and  further  directions  for 


354:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

teachers,  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  science  and  art  of 
education,  the  reader  is  now  invited  to  a  careful  consider- 
ation of  "  How  Nature  Teaches  a  Child,"  "  Elements  of 
Mental  Activity,"  the  Mind,  and  its  "  Powers  of  Mental 
Acquisition,"  its  "Powers  of  Mental  Reproduction,"  its 
"  Powers  of  Human  Reason,"  its  "  Powers  of  Moral  Ac- 
tion," and  its  "  Power  of  Willing,"  as  treated  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages.  Proper  attention  to  these  subjects  will 
lead  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  true  relations 
which  should  exist  between  the  learner  and  the  teacher, 
to  the  use  of  better  methods  of  instruction,  to  skill  in 
the  art  of  teaching,  and  to  more  satisfactory  results  in 
education. 


HOW  NATURE  TEACHES  A   CHILD.  355 


HOW  NATURE  TEACHES  A  CHILD. 

"FoR  some  time  during  the  early  years  of  childhood  Nature 
is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  teacher ;  and  the  contrast  between 
her  success  at  that  time  and  the  success  of  the  teacher  who  suc- 
ceeds her  is  very  remarkable,  and  deserving  of  consideration. 
When  we  examine  this  process  in  the  case  of  infants,  we  see 
Nature  acting  without  interference,  and  with  undeviating  success. 
Within  a  few  months  after  the  child  has  attained  some  degree 
of  consciousness,  we  find  that  Nature,  under  every  disadvantage 
of  body  and  mind,  has  succeeded  in  communicating  to  the  infant 
mind  an  amount  of  knowledge  which,  when  examined  in  detail, 
appears  truly  wonderful.  The  child  has  been  taught  to  know  his 
relatives  and  friends ;  he  has  acquired  the  ability  to  use  his  limbs, 
and  muscles,  and  organs  of  sense.  He  has  become  sufficiently 
familiar  with  the  form,  the  color,  the  texture,  and  the  names  of 
a  hundred  articles  of  dress,  of  furniture,  of  food,  and  of  amuse- 
ments, to  be  able  readily  to  distinguish  each ;  and  all  of  this  has 
been  acquired  without  fatigue,  and  with  pure  delight.  He  com- 
pares objects,  as  may  be  seen  in  his  choosing  those  things  which 
please  him,  and  rejecting  those  which  he  dislikes.  And,  above 
all,  along  with  this  substantial  knowledge  of  things  the  child  has 
been  taught  to  understand  a  language  and  to  speak  it.  The  fact 
that  all  of  this  has  been  accomplished  by  a  child  of  only  three 
or  four  years  of  age  is  so  common,  that  the  mysterious  principles 
which  it  involves  are  generally  overlooked.  We  thoughtlessly 
allow  them  to  escape  observation,  as  if  they  were  matters  of  in- 
stinct, and  to  be  ranked  with  the  spider's  catching  its  prey,  or 
the  bird's  building  its  nest. 

"  The  benefits  accruing  to  education  from  successfully  imitat- 
ing Nature  in  this  department  of  her  training  process  would  be 
incalculable,  not  only  in  adding  to  the  amount  of  knowledge  com- 


356  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

municated,  but  in  the  ease  and  delight  which  the  young  would 
experience  in  acquiring  it.  The  rapidity  of  acquisition  in  gaming 
knowledge,  and  the  pleasure  attending  it,  are  greatest  during  the 
time  that  Nature  is  the  teacher.  Both  the  rapidity  and  the  pleas- 
ure are  generally  checked  by  the  mismanagement  of  those  who 
supersede  Nature  with  the  processes  of  school  instruction.  The 
proof  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that,  although  a  child  is  much 
less  capable  of  acquiring  knowledge  between  one  and  five  years 
of  age  than  he  is  between  eight  and  twelve,  yet  the  amount  of 
knowledge  generally  derived  from  school  exercises  during  the 
four  latter  years  bears  no  proportion  to  those  of  the  former  when 
Nature  alone  was  the  teacher.  In  the  one  case  his  intellectual 
attainments  were  acquired  with  little  or  no  fatigue,  and  the  acqui- 
sition was  a  continued  source  of  pleasure,  while  in  the  other  quite 
the  reverse  is  usually  the  condition."* 

Now,  if  we  could  only  cause  the  knowledge  sought  to 
be  imparted  in  the  school-room  to  glide  as  sweetly  and 
clearly  into  the  mind  as  that  of  Nature's  teaching,  we 
should  not  only  greatly  aid  natural  education,  but  get  rid 
of  much  of  the  dreary  endurance  of  school-hours,  of  that 
stolid  lending  of  the  ears  without  hearing,  that  objectless 
looking  without  seeing,  and  those  repetitions  of  words 
without  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  amusements  of  early  childhood  furnish  instructive 
hints  as  to  suitable  means  for  the  education  of  young 
children.  When  the  child  has  acquired  the  power  of 
using  its  hands  in  holding  and  moving  objects,  he  soon 
makes  a  variety  of  experiments  by  moving  those  within 
his  reach.  If  he  notices  a  new  effect  by  moving  an  ob- 
ject, he  is  eager  to  repeat  it.  When  he  throws  a  spoon 
on  the  floor,  and  hears  the  jingling  noise,  if  another  spoon 
is  given  him  he  is  sure  to  throw  it  down,  expecting  to 
hear  the  same  noise.  If  a  piece  of  wood  be  given  him, 
he  soon  finds  that  the  same  noise  does  not  occur  when  it 

*  The  Philosophy  of  Education,  by  James  Gall,  of  Edinburgh. 


HOW  NATURE  TEACHES  A  CHILD.  357 

is  thrown  down,  and  he  loses  the  desire  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment. But,  so  long  as  the  noise  that  pleased  him  is 
repeated,  he  takes  pleasure  in  throwing  down  the  object. 

If  two  objects  be  given  him,  only  one  of  which  will 
produce  a  noise  when  thrown  down,  he  soon  finds  out  the 
difference,  and  wants  only  the  one  which  produces  the 
noise.  This  is  the  inductive  method  by  which  Nature 
teaches  her  scholars.  She  makes  their  plays  their  most 
instructive  lessons. 

"  Nature  furnishes  knowledge  by  object-lessons,  and  she  trains 
the  active  powers  by  making  them  act.  She  has  given  capability 
of  action,  and  she  develops  tins  capability  by  presenting  occasions 
for  its  exercise.  She  makes  her  pupil  learn  to  do  by  doing. 
She  gives  him  no  grammar  of  seeing,  hearing,  and  feeling ;  she 
gives  no  compendiums  of  abstract  principles.  Action — action  is 
her  maxim  of  training ;  and  things — things  are  the  objects  of  her 
lessons.  She  adopts  much  repetition  in  her  teaching,  in  order  that 
the  difficulty  may  become  easy,  and  '  use  become  second  nature.' 
In  physical  training,  '  use  legs  and  have  legs '  is  one  of  her  max- 
ims, and  she  acts  analogously  in  regard  to  mental  and  moral 
training.  She  teaches  quietly.  She  does  not  continually  inter- 
rupt her  pupil,  even  when  lie  blunders,  by  outcries  and  objurga- 
tions. She  bides  her  time ;  and,  by  prompting  him  to  continued 
action,  and  inducing  him  to  think  about  what  he  is  doing,  and 
correct  his  errors  himself,  makes  his  very  blunders  fruitful  in  in- 
struction. She  does  not  anxiously  intervene  to  prevent  the  con- 
sequences of  his  actions ;  she  allows  him  to  experience  them,  that 
he  may  learn  prudence;  sometimes  even  letting  him  burn  his 
fingers,  that  he  may  gain  at  once  a  significant  lesson  in  physics, 
and  also  the  moral  lesson  involved  in  the  ministry  of  pain.  *  *  * 

"  Nature  makes  her  pupil  teach  himself.  She  does  not  explain 
the  difference  between  hard  and  soft  objects — she  says,  Feel 
them ;  between  this  fact  and  that  she  says,  Place  them  side  by 
side  and  mark  the  difference  yourself ;  arid  generally  she  says  to 
her  pupil,  Don't  ask  me  to  tell  you  anything  that  you  can  find 
out  for  yourself.  *  *  * 


358  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"  She  mingles  lessons  in  physics,  language,  morality  all  together. 
Her  main  business  seems  to  be  the  training  of  faculty ;  and  she 
subordinates  to  this  the  orderly  acquisition  of  knowledge  by  her 
pupils."* 

The  first  step  of  Nature's  process,  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  infant  mind,  is  the  voluntary  exercise  of  the  powers 
of  mental  acquisition.  A  child  may  be  surrounded  with 
a  thousand  objects,  and  these  may  act  on  the  organs  of 
sense,  but  until  the  mind  voluntarily  occupies  itself  with 
one  or  more  of  these  sensations  there  can  ~be  no  mental  ac- 
quisition or  culture.  Education,  then,  does  not  depend 
upon  the  number  of  objects,  or  the  multitude  of  subjects 
which  may  be  employed  by  the  teacher,  but  upon  those 
only  which  the  mind  really  looks  at,  observes,  and  thinks 
about..  The  voluntary  exercise  of  the  mind  lies  at  the  be- 
ginning of  all  mental  development  and  acquisition.  Im- 
pressions may  be  received,  and  these  may  be  blended  into 
ideas,  but  these  ideas  must  also  be  symbolized  with  words, 
and  associations  formed,  and  the  ideas  repeated  or  thought 
over,  by  means  of  the  words  representing  them,  in  order 
to  produce  development  and  growth  in  knowledge. 

It  is  the  exercise  of  the  pupil's  own  mind  that  consti- 
tutes his  acts  of  learning.  Learning  is  self -teaching.  The 
mental  acts  by  which  knowledge  is  gained  are  acts  of  the 
pupil.  The  teacher  cannot  think  for  the  pupil  any  more 
than  he  can  sleep  or  eat  for  him.  He  can  only  induce, 
stimulate,  and  awaken  thoughts  and  desires  that  will  lead 
the  pupil  to  acquire  knowledge. 

*  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  by  Joseph  Payne,  late  Pro- 
fessor in  the  College  of  Preceptors,  London. 


ELEMENTS   OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY.  359 


ELEMENTS   OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY. 

THE  external  world  acts  upon,  and  stimulates  the  mind 
to  act  through,  the  nervous  system.  Mind  and  matter  act, 
and  each  are  acted  upon  by  the  other.  The  action  of 
inind  and  matter  produces  changes.  Action  and  change 
constitute  motion.  Heat,  light,  color,  and  sound  are  pro- 
duced by  motion.  Touch  and  feeling,  taste  and  smell, 
are  also  dependent  upon  motion.  The  different  varieties 
of  motion  which  produce  these  various  phenomena  expe- 
rienced by  our  minds  exist  in  the  form  of  changes,  or  vi- 
brations, among  the  atoms  of  matter.  These  several  varie- 
ties of  vibrations,  it  is  believed,  are  transmitted  to  the  dif- 
ferent senses  in  the  form  of  waves,  or  undulations. 

The  vibrations  which  produce  sound  are  communicated 
to  the  sense  of  hearing  by  undulations  of  the  atmosphere. 
Vibrations  produce  heat ;  and  light  and  color  are  trans- 
mitted to  the  senses  of  feeling  and  seeing  by  undulations 
of  ether — a  medium  believed  to  pervade  all  space,  includ- 
ing the  interior  of  all  substances.  The  difference  between 
sounds  is  caused  by  the  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  vi- 
brations and  the  length  of  the  air-waves.  The  differences 
in  heat,  light,  and  colors  depend  upon  the  rapidity  of  the 
vibrations  that  produce  them,  and,  with  light  and  colors, 
on  the  length  of  the  ethereal  undulations  also. 

The  sense  of  hearing  can  be  acted  upon  only  within  a 
certain  range  of  air -vibrations.  If  these  are  less  rapid 
than  sixteen  in'  a  second,  the  sound  will  be  too  low  for 
the  human  ear  to  perceive  it.  If  the  vibrations  are  more 
rapid  than  about  40,000  per  second,  the  sound  becomes 


360  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

too  high  for  perception  by  human  ears.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  some  animals  may  possess  powers  of  per- 
ceiving lower  sounds  than  any  which  man  hears;  while 
it  is  probable  that  there  are  others  with  such  acute  senses 
that  they  can  hear  sounds  so  high  that  we  have  no  knowl- 
edge of  their  existence. 

The  vibrations  which  produce  Ted  light  are  slower,  and 
the  ethereal  undulations  are  larger,  than  those  which  pro- 
duce purpU.  In  red  light  39,000  waves  occupy  but  one 
inch  of  space,  while  the  number  of  vibrations  is  at  least 
475,000,000,000,000  per  second.  In  purple  light  57,500 
waves  occupy  one  inch  of  space,  and  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions per  second  is  700,000,000,000,000. 

Sound  travels  through  the  atmosphere  at  the  rate  of 
llOQfeet  per  second.  Light  travels  at  the  rate  of  192,000 
miles  per  second,  or  more  than  900,000  times  faster  than 
sound.  Thus,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  two  promi- 
nent modifying  conditions  in  motion,  which  produce  the 
several  sensations  manifested  to  the  human  mind,  are 
time  and  space.  Both  of  these  are  generated  by  motion. 
Time  is  the  internal  measure  of  motion,  and  space  is  the 
measure  of  motion  externally. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  two  classes  of  sensations 
—those  which  act  through  the  senses  of  hearing  and  see- 
ing— are  the  result  of  motion.  Turning  now  to  chemical 
effects,  we  find  that  motion  of  the  particles  of  matter 
produces  the  results  observed  by  the  senses  of  taste  and 
smell.  Thus  we  perceive  that  motion  is  the  common 
ground  on  which  mind  and  the  material  world  can  meet. 
It  is  the  universal  medium  of  their  communion. 

How  Ideas  are  Formed.  —  The  material  world  is 
known  to  sense  simply  by  virtue  of,  and  in  relation  to, 
the  motion  of  its  particles.  These  motions  are  continued 
from  the  organs  of  sense,  by  the  nervous  system,  to  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY.  361 

mind,  which  in  its  turn  reacts  upon  the  material  world, 
through  the  nerves  of  motion,  to  ascertain  the  cause  of 
the  sensations,  and  thus  come  perceptions ;  while  through 
and  by  the  aid  of  perceptions  concepts  are  formed.  These 
are  the  mental  residua*  which  are  produced  in  the  mind, 
through  the  activities  of  the  different  senses,  from  ob- 
jects that  comes  before  it.  These  residua  spontaneously 
blend  together,  forming  an  idea  of  the  object.  This  is 
the  beginning  of  intelligence. 

When  an  ordinary  object  is  placed  before  us,  the  lead- 
ing features  that  first  arrest  the  attention  of  the  mind  are 
those  of  which  impressions  may  be  taken  in  through  the 
sense  of  sight,  as  color,  shape,  size,  materials,  etc.,  because 
this  sense  is  the  most  intellectual,  and  through  experience 
attains  the  ability  of  receiving  a  greater  amount  and 
variety  of  information  from  an  object  than  either  of  the 
other  senses.  The  sense  of  touch  gives  us  impressions 
of  hardness  and  smoothness,  while  impressions  of  sound, 
scent,  and  taste  are  each  conveyed  through  their  respective 
organs.  The  mind  may  receive  sensations  and  informa- 
tion from  several  senses  at  the  same  time. 

Suppose  the  object  before  the  mind  to  be  an  orange : 
all  the  concepts  derived  from  its  shape,  color,  size,  smooth- 
ness, and  its  qualities  of  scent,  taste,  etc.,  or  the  various 
mental  residua  of  this  object,  which  are  left  in  the  mind 
by  means  of  each  separate  sense,  would  unite,  unconscious- 
ly, in  forming  the  idea  of  an  orange.  It  is  by  this  process 
of  blending  impressions  that  ideas  are  formed  out  of  sim- 
ple concepts,  or  mental  impressions. 

*  The  term  "residua"  is  not  used  here  in  any  materialistic  sense,  nor  as 
a  representative  of  any  system  of  mental  philosophy,  but  simply  as  a  sym- 
bol for  accumulated  "concepts,"  or  thoughts,  or  the  simplest  elements  of 
knowledge  which  the  mind  receives  through  the  senses,  or  of  that  mental 
operation,  by  whatever  term  it  may  be  known,  or  whatever  may  be  its  modes 
of  action,  which  is  recognized  as  the  accumulation  of  that  which  becomes 
our  knowledge  of  the  external  world — that  which  is,  or  becomes,  or  pro- 
duces thoughts. 

16 


362  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Generalization. — These  same  laws,  by  which  various 
impressions  blend  together  in  forming  ideas,  also  govern 
the  union  of  similar  ideas  in  the  formation  of  general 
ones.  We  may  trace  this  blending  process  from  a  very 
early  period  of  childhood,  and  observe  the  combinations 
becoming  larger  and  larger  in  proportion  as  the  mind 
grows  up  toward  maturity.  Here,  then,  is  the  beginning 
of  that  mental  process  and  that  operation  of  the  mind 
which  may  be  called  generalization.  It  is  through  these 
natural  classifications,  based  upon  the  likeness  and  unlike- 
ness  of  things,  that  knowledge  grows  from  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract.  Thus,  the  law  of  similarity  not  only  lies 
at  the  basis  of  those  processes  by  which  the  mental  resid- 
ua are  blended  into  ideas,  but  also  of  those  simple  classifi- 
cations by  which  ideas  are  moulded  into  masses,  and  gen- 
eralizations established.  By  extending  the  classification 
of  ideas,  by  likeness  and  unlikeness,  to  the  formation  of 
groups  of  ideas,  and  establishing  a  connection  between 
them  by  associating  these  groups  together,  we  have  the 
origin  of  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  called  expe- 
rience. 

As  the  child  becomes  older,  the  range  of  its  experience 
enlarges,  the  elements  of  perception  are  more  readily 
formed  into  simple  ideas,  and  these  simple  ideas  tend 
more  and  more  to  merge  into  general  ones.  Even  words, 
which  are  symbols  of  our  generalized  ideas,  represent  to 
the  child  a  simpler  combination  of  ideas  than  the  same 
words  do  to  one  of  wider  experience.  Suppose  the  word 
river  be  heard.  To  the  child  it  might  convey  only  an 
idea  of  a  single  stream  which  he  had  seen ;  but  to  the 
adult  of  large  experience  it  would  convey  an  indefinite 
number  of  river-ideas,  which  had  formed  in  his  mind  out 
of  the  past  observations  made  by  himself  and  others,  all 
of  which  now  have  blended  into  a  more  comprehensive 
or  general  form,  under  the  single  word  river. 


ELEMENTS  OF  MENTAL  ACTIVITY.  363 

Not  only  are  our  ideas  of  material  objects  formed  by 
the  blending  of  impressions  obtained  through  several 
senses,  but  ideas  of  abstract  terms,  as  love,  hatred,  pity, 
anger,  virtue,  etc.,  are  formed  in  the  same  way  ;  they  take 
their  origin  primarily  from  certain  manifestations  which 
we  see  in  others,  or  are  conscious  of  in  ourselves.  Al- 
though these  manifestations  are  various,  yet  in  the  course 
of  our  experience  the  impressions  which  they  leave  blend 
together,  so  as  to  form  combinations  that  represent  to  the 
mind  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  terms  love,  hate,  pity, 
anger,  virtue,  etc.  Since  the  impressions  which  unite  in 
the  formation  of  these  several  ideas  differ  according  to 
the  mental  experiences  of  each  individual,  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  words  which  stand  as  symbols  for  these 
ideas  will  convey  them  with  exactly  the  same  force  and 
clearness  to  each  mind. 

The  fulness,  clearness,  and  accuracy  of  the  ideas  re- 
ceived from  words  by  each  person  depend  upon  the 
number  of  "concepts,"  or  the  amount  of  mental  residua 
which  those  words  symbolize  to  each.  Words  signify 
much  or  little  to  each  one  of  us,  as  our  mental  accumu- 
lations associated  with  those  words  are  many  or  few. 


364  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


MAN'S  NATUEE  AND  POWEES. 

MAN  possesses  two  widely  different  natures :  one  is 
physical,  the  other  spiritual.  As  a  physical  being,  he  is 
composed  of  bones,  or  a  frame ;  of  muscles,  or  organs  of 
motion ;  of  nerves  and  ganglia,  or  organs  of  sensation. 
As  a  spiritual  being,  man  is  composed  of  a  mind,  which 
acts  through  specific  bodily  organs  in  all  its  intercourse 
with  the  material  world. 

The  action  of  the  physical  nature  may  be  called  animal 
power;  the  action  of  the  spiritual  nature  may  be  called 
mental  power.  We  are  conscious  of  the  operations  of  both 
of  these  powers,  and  may  control,  or  influence,  their  ac- 
tion by  our  will.  But  there  is  a  third  power,  which  be- 
longs chiefly  to  our  physical  nature,  that  is  wholly  beyond 
both  our  consciousness  and  our  control.  This  is  the  Vital 
Power,  or  that  force  by  which  the  physical  system  is  built 
up  and  kept  in  repair,  and  the  processes  of  animal  life 
carried  on.  This  power  is  common  also  to  the  entire 
animal  and  vegetable  world. 

THE  MIND. 

The  mind  is  that  which  feels,  and  thinks,  and  ~knows. 
Its  organs  are  the  brain  and  nerves.  The  mind  is  spirit- 
ual ;  the  brain  and  nerves  are  material.  The  mind  is  said 
to  possess  various  faculties;  but  these  denote  only  the 
different  modes  in  which  its  power  is  manifested. 

The  Senses. — The  senses  are  those  powers  by  which 
the  mind  holds  communication  with  the  external  world. 


MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS.  365 

Their  various  modes  of  manifestation  are  called  taste, 
smell,  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  and  the  muscular  sense. 
Their  special  bodily  organs  are  the  tongue,  the  nose,  the 
eye,  the  ear,  the  skin,  and  the  muscles.  The  means  of 
connection  and  communication  between  these  external 
organs  of  sense  and  the  mind  are  the  nerves. 

Nerves. — Each  organ  of  sense  has  its  peculiar  nerve 
connecting  it  with  the  brain,  the  chief  organ  of  the  mind. 
To  the  anatomist  these  nerves  all  appear  alike,  when  sep- 
arated from  the  body.  But  each  is  affected  in  its  own  pe- 
culiar way :  one  by  light,  another  by  sound,  another  by 
smell,  another  by  touch,  another  by  taste.  Neither  of 
them  is  affected  by  that  which  produces  sensation  in  the 
other.  Sound  does  not  affect  the  nerve  of  sight;  light 
does  not  affect  the  nerve  of  hearing ;  taste  does  not  affect 
the  nerve  of  smell,  and  so  on.  But  precisely  how  the 
mind  acts  through  the  brain  and  nerves,  and  the  various 

O  ' 

organs  of  sensation,  no  man  can  fully  explain.  However, 
that  the  mind  possesses  native  tendencies  to  act  through 
its  several  organs  of  sense,  is  as  evident  as  that  the  life- 
principle  of  seeds  contains  the  natural  tendency  to  devel- 
op into  a  plant  after  its  own  kind.  But  both  the  mind 
and  the  life  -  principle  need  the  appropriate  conditions, 
which  can  be  supplied  by  the  influences  of  external  ob- 
jects, to  bring  forth  their  development. 

Sensations. — Sensations  are  those  brief  influences,  or 
impressions,  which  external  objects  produce  upon  the 
mind  through  its  special  bodily  organs  of  sense.  A  sen- 
sation lasts  only  during  the  time  that  its  cause  acts  upon 
the  organ  of  sense.  It  is  a  fundamental  element  of 
knowledge. 

Perception  and  Perceptiveness. — By  means  of  the 
nerves  such  a  communication  exists  between  the  outward 
organs  of  sense  and  the  mind  that  notice  is  taken  of  the 


366  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

sensations.  This  notice,  or  attention,  is  called  perception. 
It  is  a  manifestation  of  perceptiveness. 

Perceptiveness  is  that  power,  or  natural  tendency  of  the 
mind,  to  act  in  perceiving  whenever  the  occasion  for  ac- 
tion occurs.  Perception  is  the  action  of  perceptiveness. 
When  its  action  ceases,  perception  ceases ;  but  perceptive- 
ness  is  a  permanent  power,  or  tendency  of  the  mind,  which 
is  always  ready  to  act  whenever  the  appropriate  excite- 
ment affects  it. 

^Perception  constitutes  the  first  mental  activity  in  the 
process  of  gaining  knowledge. 

Conception. — When  the  object  which  caused  the  ac- 
tion of  perceptiveness  is  removed,  mere  perception  ceases; 
but,  during  the  presence  of  the  object,  and  the  activity 
of  the  perceptive  power,  the  mind  receives  a  permanent 
impression,  or  image,  or  knowledge  of  it.  This  image,  or 
knowledge,  is  sometimes  called  a  concept.  Such  an  im- 
pression, or  image,  might  be  termed  a  simple  element  of 
knowledge,  or  a  mental  residua;*  for  it  is  these  elements 
of  knowledge,  or  impressions,  which  accumulate  and  en- 
ter into  the  various  forms  and  combinations  that  make 
up  those  attainments  which  are  commonly  understood  by 
knowledge  of  an  object.  That  mental  power  which  takes 
the  impression,  or  gains  these  elements  of  knowledge  of 
the  object  in  such  a  manner  that  the  image,  or  knowledge, 
may  be  retained  and  recalled  without  the  presence  of  the 
object,  is  often  called  conception. 

This  mental  power  of  receiving  and  retaining  the  ele- 
ments of  knowledge  of  objects,  whether  called  conception, 
or  intuition,  or  apprehension,  or  perceptive  faculties,  or 
by  some  other  name,  is  the  primary  knowledge-gatherer  of 
the  mind.  It  collects  elements  of  knowledge  that  aid  in 
other  mental  operations.  It  furnishes  the  means  of  rec- 

*  See  note  on  page  361. 


MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS.  367 

ognizing  the  same  objects  when  they  come  again  under 
notice. 

"  We  are  following  the  plainest  dictates  of  consciousness,  we 
avoid  a  thousand  difficulties,  and  we  get  a  solid  ground  on  which 
to  rest  and  build,  when  we  maintain  that  the  mind  in  its  first  ex- 
ercises acquires  knowledge;  not,  indeed,  scientific,  or  arranged; 
not  of  qualities  of  objects  and  classes  of  objects,  but  still  knowl- 
edge— the  knowledge  of  things  presenting  themselves,  and  as 
they  present  themselves ;  which  knowledge,  individual  and  con- 
crete, is  the  foundation  of  all  other  knowledge — abstract,  general, 
and  deductive.  In  particular,  the  mind  is  so  constituted  as  to  at- 
tain a  knowledge  of  body  or  of  material  objects.  It  is  through 
the  bodily  organism  that  the  intelligence  of  man  attains  its 
knowledge  of  all  material  objects  beyond.  This  is  true  of  the 
infant  mind;  it  is  true  also  of  the  mature  mind."* 

ORGANS  OF  SENSE. 

The  several  organs  of  sense  are  the  means  by  which 
the  mind  gains  the  elements  of  knowledge  from  various 
objects.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  to  inquire  what  are  the 
original  elements  of  knowledge  which  the  mind  receives 
through  each  of  these  organs  of  sense,  that  the  manner  of 
the  mind's  activity  may  be  so  well  understood  as  to  ena- 
ble teachers  readily  to  devise  suitable  exercises  for  in- 
creasing its  facilities  of  action  through  each  of  these 
organs. 

Seeing. — Through  the  organs  of  sight  objects  are  per- 
ceived chiefly  by  means  of  their  form  and  color ;  but  it 
is  experience,  or  the  combined  elements  of  knowledge 
derived  through  the  senses  of  sight,  touch,  and  the  mus- 
cular sense,  and  sometimes  of  hearing  also,  which  enables 
^the  mind  to  attain  definite  knowledge  of  the  form,  size, 
and  distance  of  objects.  An  infant  has  perfect  eyes,  yet 

*  Intuitions  of  the  Mind,  by  Dr.  McCosh. 


368  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

it  will  try  to  reach  distant  objects  as  well  as  those  near 
it,  apparently  having  no  idea  that  all  objects  are  not  equal- 
ly near  until  it  has  learned  to  the  contrary  by  its  own  ex- 
perience. Neither  does  it  distinguish  one  form  or  color 
from  another  until  it  has  learned  to  do  so  through  expe- 
rience. 

Children  are  born  with  all  the  senses,  but  facility  in  the 
use  of  each  must  ~be  acquired.  During  infancy  the  earliest 
attainments  in  knowledge  are  the  results  of  experience ; 
so,  also,  does  the  mind  add  to  its  stock  of  knowledge  by 
its  experience  during  all  subsequent  stages  of  learning. 
It  is  exercise,  practice,  experience  that  develops  mental 
powers  as  well  as  the  physical  powers.  "Whatever  exer- 
cises give  to  the  mind  greater  facility  of  action  through 
its  several  organs  of  sense  will  increase  its  power  and 
extend  its  knowledge.  Hence  the  importance  of  giving 
special  attention,  during  early  steps  of  education,  to  appro- 
priate means  for  extending  the  experience  of  the  mental 
powers  by  supplying  suitable  exercises  for  these  organs 
of  sense. 

The  sense  of  sight  may  be  cultivated  by  observing  the 
physical  properties  of  objects,  such  as  form,  color,  num- 
ber, surface,  size,  position,  distance,  motion,  rest,  and  solid- 
ity, and  their  various  combinations  and  uses.  Among  the 
objects  appropriate  for  this  purpose  are  the  utensils  and 
tools  for  the  house,  farm,  or  shop,  furniture,  machinery, 
pictures,  models,  trees,  leaves,  flowers,  birds,  quadrupeds, 
insects,  shells,  pebbles,  and  occupations,  and  the  various 
objects  of  nature  and  art.  Although  somewhat  familiar 
to  children,  by  casually  seeing  them,  these  several  objects 
may  be  so  employed  by  the  teacher  as  to  arrest  their  vol- 
atile attention,  and  win  them  to  habits  of  close  and  minute 
observation,  and  lead  them  to  acquire  the  power  of  ready 
and  accurate  description. 

The  eye  is  par  excellence  the  intellectual  sense.    Light  is 


MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS.  369 

the  symbol  by  which  we  most  naturally  represent  knowl- 
edge, and  to  see  a  thing  is  used  as  an  equivalent  for  un- 
derstanding it.  Sight  is  of  far  greater  importance  in  in- 
tellectual education  than  hearing,  yet  the  latter  is  com- 
monly made  the  principal  medium  of  school  instruction, 
notwithstanding  it  is  comparatively  of  much  less  value 
than  the  former. 

Hearing.  —  The  mind,  through  its  organ  of  hearing, 
perceives  sounds.  At  first,  to  the  young  child,  those 
sounds  appear  to  exist  within  the  organ  affected — the  ear. 
At  length  experience  teaches  that  it  proceeds  from  a  body 
without,  and  further  experience  teaches  the  sources  of 
the  different  sounds ;  and  by  this  means  the  child  learns 
to  know  certain  objects  by  their  sounds.  Subsequent  ob- 
servation enables  him  to  recognize  the  various  character- 
istics of  sound,  and  thus  to  feel  similar  emotions  upon  the 
recurrence  of  the  same  sounds. 

Hearing  is  cultivated  by  distinguishing  sounds  of  va- 
rious kinds,  as  those  produced  by  bells  and  other  sonorous 
objects,  or  by  different  animals,  or  by  the  human  voice  in 
conversation,  elocution,  and  music.  Training  children  in 
liabits  of  correct  enunciation  of  words,  and  in  the  distinct 
utterance  of  the  elementary  sounds  of  language,  singly 
and  in  combinations,  will  aid  materially  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  sense  of  hearing. 

While  sight  is  naturally  associated  with  the  intellect, 
hearing  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  feelings.  Tones  of 
voice  betoken  emotions  which  no  words  can  express. 
Words  are  but  sounds  as  they  strike  the  ear,  yet  what 
power  they  possess  in  moulding,  recalling,  and  stimulating 
our  ideas !  The  sweetest  delights  of  music,  the  richest 
charms  of  society,  the  various  tones  of  the  human  voice 
in  expressions  of  love,  joy,  sorrow,  anger,  remorse,  and 
fear — all  indicate  developments  of  the  mind  through  the 


370  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

sense  of  hearing.  All  of  these  conditions  and  experiences 
become  possible  by  means  of  the  air  that  surrounds  us, 
and  the  susceptibility  of  cultivated  organs  of  hearing. 
And,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  exercises  of  the  school- 
room too  seldom  have  any  definite  reference  to  training 
this  sense  of  hearing  in  habits  of  accuracy,  acuteness,  and 
delicacy  of  perception.  Some  success  is  attained  in  cul- 
tivating the  singing  voice  in  smoothness  and  sweetness, 
but  too  little  is  done  toward  cultivating  sweetness  and 
richness  of  the  speaking  voice,  as  used  in  conversation, 
reading,  etc. 

As  illustrations  of  the  great  degree  of  cultivation  to 
which  the  organs  of  hearing  may  be  brought,  and  the  wide 
range  for  training  both  the  ear  and  the  human  voice, 
through  the  development  of  this  sense,  we  present  the 
following  statements : 

Probably  the  lowest  sound  which  the  human  ear  can  perceive 
is  produced  by  about  sixteen  vibrations  per  second.  The  lowest 
note  by  the  open  organ-pipe,  thirty-two  feet  long,  is  formed  by 
thirty-two  vibrations  of  air  in  a  second.  The  highest  musical 
note  which  can  be  produced  is  supposed  to  be  formed  by  about 
5000  vibrations  per  second. 

In  the  common  seven-octave  piano  the  lowest  note  of  the  bass 
(A)  contains  about  twenty-seven  vibrations  per  second,  and  the 
hiofhest  note  of  the  treble  about  3500  vibrations  in  a  second.  The 

o 

musical  ear  is  able  to  discriminate  innumerable  varieties  and  com- 
binations of  vibrations  lying  between  these  extremes.  But  what 
may  be  said  of  the  extent  and  acuteness  of  those  cultivated  organs 
of  hearing  which  enables  the  leader  of  a  large  orchestra,  where  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  vibrations  are  such  as  to  entirely  baf- 
fle their  computation  by  arithmetic,  to  detect  a  single  note  or 
part  of  a  vibration  out  of  tune  or  time,  and  even  to  point  out  the 
offender ! 

The  range  of  human  hearing,  between  the  lowest  sound  that 
is  perceived  by  the  ear,  or  even  the  lowest  note  of  the  organ,  and 


MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS.  371 

the  highest  known  cry  of  insects,  which  is  supposed  to  be  formed 
by  about  40,000  vibrations  per  second,  includes  about  ten  oc- 
taves. The  compass  of  the  human  voice,  from  the  lowest  note  of 
the  bass  or  male  voice,  which  is  produced  by  about  sixty  vibra- 
tions per  second,  to  the  highest  note  of  the  soprano,  which  is 
composed  of  about  1044  vibrations  per  second,  is  within  four 
octaves.  The  compass  of  good,  common  voices  is  within  two  oc- 
taves ;  very  few  extend  so  far  as  three.  Madame  Catalani's  voice, 
it  is  said,  embraced  three  and  a  half  octaves. 

"Every  musical  instrument,  every  animal,  every  object  in  nat- 
ure has  its  peculiar  quality  of  voice.  Where  the  sound  is  pro- 
duced by  a  living  agent,  it  is  again  further  modified  by  the  cir- 
cumstances of  skill  in  the  performer,  and  by  the  sentiment  under 
which  the  tones  are  produced.  By  this  variety  in  note  and  qual- 
ity the  practised  ear  is  enabled  not  only  to  distinguish  the  origi- 
nating cause  of  a  sound,  but  to  determine  the  sentiment  which 
called  it  forth." 

Knowing  that  such  results  are  possible  from  developing 
the  sense  of  hearing,  also  that  much  depends  upon  its 
power  in  learning  to  read  with  clearness  and  beauty  of 
expression,  and  that  it  contributes  largely  to  the  cultiva- 
tion and  richness  of  the  human  voice,  thus  adding  to  the 
charms  of  conversation,  the  importance  of  giving  special 
attention  to  training  this  sense  in  habits  of  acuteness  of 
hearing,  accuracy  in  distinguishing  tones,  and  to  training 
the  voice  in  producing  the  tones  with  facility,  becomes  so 
apparent  that  it  can  hardly  receive  too  much  attention  in 
the -exercises  of  school. 

Feeling  or  Touch. — "  The  organ  of  touch  consists  of 
the  fine  extremities  of  the  nerves  distributed  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body,  and  protected  by  the  epider- 
mis, or  outer  skin."  The  skin  is,  therefore,  commonly 
called  the  organ  of  touch.  Its  greatest  power  is  centred 
in  the  tips  of  the  fingers.  The  sensation  of  feeling  is 
chiefly  dependent  upon  temperature. 


372  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

At  first  thought  it  may  seem  of  little  importance  to 
cultivate  the  sense  of  touch  ;  but  if  we  consider  the  many 
arts  and  professions  which  require  delicate  sensitiveness 
and  accuracy  of  touch,  we  shall  find  that  its  culture  is  a 
matter  worthy  of  much  attention. 

This  sense  may  be  cultivated  by  perceiving  such  prop- 
erties of  bodies  as  hardness,  softness,  smoothness,  rough- 
ness, heat,  cold,  and  all  those  minute  sensations  which 
come  to  us  through  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 

Muscular  Sense. — That  which  is  known  as  the  mus- 
cular sense  is  intimately  connected  with  feeling,  and  is 
the  peculiar  manifestation  of  the  sense  of  touch  which 
takes  cognizance  of  resistance,  and  enables  the  mind  to 
obtain  ideas  of  size,  distance,  position,  form,  and  weight. 

The  cultivation  of  the  muscular  sense  is  important,  not 
only  because  this  is  the  organ  of  force,  but  because  it  is 
also  necessary  to  bring  the  muscles  under  the  complete 
control  of  the  mind,  so  that  their  movements  may  be  made 
with  facility  and  precision,  and  thus  contribute  to  skill  of 
workmanship  and  manual  execution  in  any  trade,  art,  or 
occupation.  It  may  be  cultivated  by  observing  those  sen- 
sations which  arise  from  resistance  and  pressure,  such  as 
weight,  strength,  toughness,  and  elasticity,  or  from  a  push, 
a  prick,  or  a  blow. 

Smelling. — Through  the  organs  of  smell  odors  are  per- 
ceived ;  but  at  first  the  knowledge  of  the  odor  does  not 
extend  outside  of  the  part  affected — the  nostrils.  Expe- 
rience teaches  the  child  that  there  is  an  object  beyond 
the  nose  from  which  the  sinell  proceeds.  Further  obser- 
vations teach  the  child  to  connect  particular  odors  with 
particular  objects,  so  that  at  length  the  mind  comes  to 
recognize  objects  by  their  odors  through  the  sense  of 
smell  alone. 


MAN'S  NATURE  AND  POWERS.  373 

The  sense  of  smell  may  be  so  educated  as  to  become 
an  important  aid  in  the  preservation  of  life  and  health. 
Dr.  South  wood  Smith  says :  "  If  the  poisonous  exhalations 
in  the  atmosphere  could  be  seen  rising  in  snakish  spirals 
from  sewers,  crawling  along  damp  alleys,  and  entering 
our  dwellings,  we  should  fear  to  walk  along  our  streets." 

The  sense  of  smell  may  be  so  trained  as  to  distin- 
guish between  smells  that  are  simply  disagreeable  and 
those  that  indicate  miasma  and  disease.  Such  a  cultiva- 
tion of  this  sense  would  become  an  excellent  means  of 
security  against  many  forms  of  disease. 

Tasting. — The  power  to  distinguish  the  qualities  of 
sweetness,  sourness,  bitterness,  and  saltness  we  call  the 
sense  of  taste.  The  tongue  is  the  principal  organ  of  this 
sense ;  taste  is  its  function  ;  savor  is  the  general  sensation 
produced.  Taste  is  the  most  easily  changed  of  all  our 
senses.  It  will  accommodate  itself  to  almost  anything; 
therefore  it  requires,  more  than  any  other  sense,  the  con- 
stant guidance  of  reason.  This  fact  should  be  impressed 
upon  the  minds  of  the  young,  and  they  should  be  led  to 
cultivate  a  desire  for  those  kinds  of  foods  and  drinks 
which  are  known  to  be  conducive  to  health,  and  to  in- 
crease a  dislike  for  those  things  which,  notwithstanding 
they  may  become  pleasant  to  the  taste,  are  nevertheless 
known  to  be  injurious  to  health. 

The  senses  of  smell  and  of  taste  contribute  a  far  less 
amount  of  materials  toward  intellectual  education  than 
those  of  seeing,  hearing,  and  feeling.  The  cause  of  this 
exists  in  the  fact  that  only  the  faintest  impressions  of 
odors  and  tastes  can  be  recalled  by  the  mind,  when  the 
objects  are  absent  to  which  these  qualities  belong. 

"  It  is  not  quite  certain  that  we  can  think  of  even  the  most 
pungent  tastes  and  smells  entirely  abstracted  from  the  visible  ac- 


374: 


MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


companiments  of  these  sensations.  Cayenne  pepper  affects  the 
tongue  much  more  vividly  than  its  bright  color  does  the  eye ;  but 
in  attempting  to  think  of  this  acrid  condiment,  its  visible  appear- 
ance prevails  entirely  over  the  feeble  traces  left  upon  the  mind  by 
the  taste,  so  that  one  can  mentally  see  it  much  sooner  than  men- 
tally taste  it."* 

Those  impressions  that  come  to  us  through  the  senses 
which  are  most  nearly  allied  to  our  physical  being  can 
be  but  imperfectly  recalled  in  the  absence  of  the  objects 
which  produce  them ;  while  those  of  a  more  intellectual 
character  remain  in  the  mind,  and  may  be  recalled,  with- 
out the  presence  of  their  several  objects,  with  a  vividness 
almost  equalling  reality. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  KNOWLEDGE  GAINED  BY  THE 

SENSES. 

The  following  tabular  classification  will  show  at  a  glance  the 
several  bodily  organs  of  sense,  their  respective  sensations,  and  the 
chief  kinds  of  knowledge  that  are  obtained  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  each  sense  :f 


Organs  of  Sense. 

Names  of  Sensations. 

Kinds  of  Knowledge  Gained  through  each  of  the  Senses. 

Eve  . 

Seeing  •! 

Light,  color,  lustre,  form,  number,  size,  sur- 
face, solidity  position   distance  motion, 

I 

rest. 

Ear  

Hearing.  .  .  \ 

Sound  and  its  qualities,  speech,  music,  di- 

( 

rection,  distance. 

Skin  ) 
Fingers..  ) 

Touch  ) 

Feeling  .  .  .  J 

Softness,  hardness,  smoothness,  roughness, 
heat,  cold. 

Muscles  

Muscular.  .  •< 

Resistance,   pressure,   weight,    toughness, 
elasticity,  force,  size,  position,  distance, 
direction. 

Nose 

Smelling  .... 

Odor,  fragrance,  etc. 

Tongue  

Tasting  .  .  .  -j 

Sweetness,  bitterness,  saltness,  savoriness, 
acidity,  astringency,  pungency,  flavors, 
etc. 

*  Home  Education,  by  Isaac  Taylor. 

t  See  statements  concerning  the  organs  of  sense — seeing,  hearing,  feeling  or 
touch,  muscular  sense,  smelling,  tasting — in  the  preceding  pages. 


DEVELOPING  THE  POWERS  OF  MIXD.  375 


DEVELOPING   THE   POWERS   OF   MIND. 

Cultivating  Perceptiveness. — This  faculty,  or  mental 
power,  depends  for  its  development  and  strength  upon  the 
activity  and  acuteness  of  the  several  senses.  "Whatever 
will  render  the  perceptions  through  the  eye  more  clear, 
;keen,  and  certain,  arid  those  through  the  ear  more  acute 
and  quick,  will  greatly  increase  the  intellectual  strength 
of  the  faculty  of  perceptiveness.  As  a  clear,  strong,  and 
healthy  sensation  is  indispensable  to  a  distinct  perception, 
so  are  clear,  forcible,  and  true  perceptions  necessary  to 
accuracy  and  clearness  of  conceptions  and  the  successful 
acquisition  of  correct  knowledge. 

A  child,  while  watching  the  different  objects  around 
it,  observing  their  forms,  colors,  number,  and  sounds,  and 
examining  their  structures,  is  employed  in  a  work  in 
which  it  should  be  encouraged  as  much  as  possible,  since 
it  is  by  such  means  that  the  powers  of  perception  and 
conception  are  cultivated,  and  valuable  materials  of  knowl- 
edge added  to  the  mind.  Therefore,  to  cultivate  this 
power  of  perceptiveness  in  a  right  manner,  means  should 
be  devised  for  just  such  exercises  as  will  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  perceptive  powers,  and  lead  to  careful  ob- 
servation of  properties  and  qualities  of  objects.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  placing  before  children  objects 
that  interest  them  and  excite  their  curiosity,  and  by  lead- 
ing them  to  observe  more  carefully,  and  minutely,  and 
systematically  the  shape,  color,  size,  qualities,  and  uses 
of  common  objects. 

Since  the  elements  of  our  knowledge  of  the  exter- 
nal world  are  acquired,  in  the  first  instance,  through  the 


376  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

organs  of  sense,  it  becomes  highly  important  that  much 
attention  should  be  given  to  their  training  during  the  el- 
ementary steps  of  education.  Yet  this  important  work, 
which  lies  at  the  very  threshold  of  all  sound  education,  is 
commonly  neglected  in  the  plans  of  school  instruction,  or 
left  in  the  hands  of  unskilful  and  inexperienced  teachers. 

"  The  organs  of  sense  are  the  very  gate-ways  by  which  knowl- 
edge must  enter  the  mind ;  but  if  these  gate-ways  are  only  par- 
tially opened,  or  encumbered  and  blocked  up,  knowledge  must 
come  through  them  with  difficulty,  and  often  with  an  aspect  dis- 
torted by  the  passage. 

"  I  would  recommend  that  the  organs  of  sense  should  be  care- 
fully tested,  during  the  preliminary  steps  of  education,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  they  severally  discharge  their  functions  perfectly. 
Organic  defects  are  more  common  than  many  suppose;  and  they 
often  remain  undetected,  even  by  mothers,  until  the  period  of  ac- 
quisitiveness has  passed  away.  The  child,  at  this  early  age,  has 
no  means  of  discovering  its  own  organic  deficiency;  it  has  always 
seen  things  in  a  haze,  or  heard  sounds  confusedly,  and  it  takes 
these  sensations  as  the  natural  and  regular  effects  of  their  several 
causes ;  it  has  no  different  standard  of  comparison,  for  reason  is 
not  yet  sufficiently  developed  to  effect  that  subtle  comparison 
with  the  sensations  and  perceptions  of  other  children  which 
might  lead  to  a  consciousness  of  inferior  perceptions  and  con- 
ceptions. 

"  Many  children  are  deemed  stupid  when  they  are  simply  shut 
in  from  the  true  comprehension  of  things.  There  may  be  a  pow- 
erful intellect  behind  a  defective  organization.  If  a  child  be  a 
little  deaf,  so  that  the  words  of  the  teacher  reach  the  mind  in 
truncated  and  scarcely  articulate  sounds,  there  is  nothing  more 
natural  than  that  a  child  should  mistake  their  meaning,  and  give 
a  wrong  answer.  The  mischief  in  too  many  cases  is  that  this 
misapprehension  is  attributed  to  dulness  or  obstinacy,  and  that 
the  child  is  punished  in  some  manner  for  what  no  intellectual 
brightness  or  industry  can  remedy.  Now,  a  child  slightly  deaf 
can  hardly  profit  by  the  instruction  of  the  teacher  without  spe- 


DEVELOPING  THE  POWERS  OF  MIND.  377 

cial  attention,  and  It  is,  therefore,  frequently  regarded  as  dull  and 
sulky.  It  mistakes  his  orders,  and  is  punished  for  disobedience ; 
it  hears  nothing  of  his  affectionate  tones,  does  not  therefore  re- 
spond, and  is  set  down  as  sullen  and  unlovable.  In  like  manner 
a  near-sighted  child  or  a  long-sighted  child  is  frequently  reproved 
for  inattention,  although  the  mind  may  be  struggling  to  force  its 
way  through  the  obstructed  channels  of  vision.  Even  where  the 
teacher  pities  the  child's  deficiency,  and  forbears  to  punish  it,  it 
is  too  frequently  allowed  to  pass  out  of  view  as  a  natural  defect 
of  the  mind,  and  therefore  irremediable.  The  evils  that  result 
from  compelling  the  mind  to  work  without  attention  to  these 
imperfect  instruments  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 

"  Where  defects  are  discovered  they  may  be  partly  overcome, 
if  not  entirely  removed,  by  strengthening  the  association  between 
the  defective  senses  and  those  that  are  not  defective.  The  or- 
gans may  be  trained,  by  judicious  exercise,  to  a  far  higher  degree 
of  accuracy  and  power  than  they  possess  in  the  uncultured  state. 
If  all  disturbing  and  vitiating  causes  be  removed  from  the  chan- 
nels through  which  knowledge  is  derivecl.  it  must  flow  in  upon 
the  mind  in  a  fuller  and  purer  stream  when  the  source  that  sup- 
plies it  is  abundant. 

"Material  objects  and  sensible  events  should  constitute  the 
chief  lessons  of  childhood.  The  knowledge  a  child  acquires  by 
the  exercise  of  his  own  senses  penetrates  the  intellect  more  deep- 
ly and  pervades  it  more  completely  than  any  other;  for  it  is  the 
impression  which  Nature  herself  makes  upon  the  mind  by  direct 
contact,  whilst  all  other  media  of  instruction  are  but  representa- 
tions, more  or  less  imperfect,  of  nature.  The  originals  and  types 
of  all  erudition  must  be  thus  stored  up  by  direct  perception,  for 
without  it  words  could  have  no  significance. 

"A  fine  exercise  for  perceptiveness,  and  for  making  distinct 
perception  a  habit,  is  to  take  pupils  to  parks,  gardens,  groves, 
workshops,  manufactories,  etc.,  and  afterward  to  get  them  to 
write  out  descriptions  of  all  they  saw  and  heard  that  came  to 
their  knowledge  through  each  or  all  the  organs  of  sense."* 

*  Arranged  from  Human  Culture,  by  M.  A.  Garvey. 


378  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

In  exercises  of  this  kind  the  younger  pupils  might  be 
requested  to  mention  the  names  of  the  objects  which 
they  saw ;  to  describe  their  form,  color,  size,  position,  and 
uses ;  to  state  what  sounds  were  heard ;  whether  the  at- 
mosphere was  fresh  or  unpleasant ;  what  refreshments, 
fruits,  etc.,  were  eaten  ;  whether  the  weather  was  warm 
or  cold ;  whether  the  distance  was  long  or  short,  etc.  Of 
course  these  descriptions  would  be  very  imperfect  at  first, 
but  practice  would  soon  give  the  pupils  such  powers  of 
observation  and  description  as  would  lead  to  the  very 
best  kind  of  education. 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  ACQUISITION.  379 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  ACQUISITION. 

Their  Cultivation. — The  various  mental  powers  by 
which  the  elements  of  knowledge  are  gained  and  ideas 
formed  are  often  called  the  Perceptive  Faculties.  The 
term  Powers  of  Mental  Acquisition  is  here  used  to  desig- 
nate that  class  of  faculties,  or  powers,  which  causes  those 
active  operations  that  take  place  at  the  several  gate-ways 
of  knowledge,  and  transmit  information  to  the  mind  from 
the  outward  world ;  and  those  also  which  aid  to  combine, 
arrange,  classify,  and  retain  this  information,  so  that  it 
may  become  permanent  knowledge.  These  powers  are 
manifested  in  the  mind's  ability  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
form,  color,  number,  size,  position,  distance,  order,  weight, 
sound,  time,  etc.,  and  in  the  ability  to  compare,  combine, 
construct,  classify,  and  arrange. 

Phrenologists  use  terms  indicating  the  kinds  of  ideas 
obtained  from  the  principal  qualities  of  objects  to  desig- 
nate these  several  mental  powers;  and  each  of  these 
powers  is  called  by  them  an  organ  of  the  mind,  and  is 
assigned  a  definite  position  on  the  head. 

Our  powers  of  mental  acquisition  may  be  cultivated 
by  attentively  observing  likeness  and  unlikeness,  or  re- 
semblances and  differences,  in  whatever  comes  within 
the  range  of  the  senses.  It  is  by  such  an  exercise  of  the 
senses  as  will  impart  to  them  activity,  acuteness,  accuracy, 
facility,  and  strength  that  the  desired  cultivation  must  be 
accomplished.  Appropriate  exercises  of  the  organs  of 
sense  will  add  these  qualities  to  the  several  powers  of  the 
mind ;  and  this  addition  of  more  activity  and  strength  to 
the  mind  by  experience  constitutes  tliat  which  is  under- 
stood by  the  terms  development,  cultivation,  education. 


380  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

As  the  elements  of  thought  are  multiplied  by  observation 
ideas  are  more  and  more  readily  formed ;  and  thus  the 
more  we  learn  correctly,  the  more  easily  can  we  acquire 
additional  knowledge. 

OBSERVATION. 

This  is  not  a  faculty  of  the  mind,  but  rather  a  common 
term  used  to  express  the  results  of  the  action  of  several 
mental  powers,  prominent  among  which  are  those  of  per- 
ceptiveness,  conception,  and  attention.  Inasmuch  as  in 
the  practical  exercises  of  education  the  combined  action 
of  these  powers  of  mental  acquisition  is  chiefly  consid- 
ered, rather  than  their  individual  qualities,  I  shall  here 
treat  of  them  in  this  united  capacity,  under  the  name  of 
Observation. 

The  act  of  observing  springs  from  the  natural  desire  to 
know.  This  act,  in  turn,  reacts  on  that  desire,  stimulat- 
ing it  and  increasing  the  power  of  observation.  A  child, 
whose  powers  of  mental  acquisition  have  been  properly 
exercised,  will  acquire  the  habit  of  observation,  and  thus 
increase  his  ability  to  gain  knowledge. 

To  observe  is  not  merely  to  see,  and  hear,  and  feel,  but 
to  see,  and  hear,  and  feel  with  such  attention  as  to  perceive 
clearly  and  accurately.  The  more  the  observation  is  thus 
employed,  the  more  will  be  brought  into  the  view  of  the 
mind  by  sensations  and  perceptions. 

Observation  should  first  be  employed  upon  those  qual- 
ities which  act  directly  upon  the  senses;  since  the  more 
these  are  noticed,  and  the  more  ideas  of  them  are  asso- 
ciated together,  the  better  will  be  laid  the  foundation  for 
future  knowledge.  In  the  works  of  nature  there  is  much 
more  to  excite  the  observation  of  children,  as  well  as 
much  more  that  can  be  made  the  subjects  of  pleasing  in- 
struction, than  in  the  works  of  art ;  but  the  judicious  in- 
structor will  not  be  at  a  loss  to  find  numerous  objects 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  ACQUISITION.  381 

within  doors,  as  well  as  without,  to  thus  aid  in  the  proc- 
ess of  mental  culture,  especially  such  as  will  stimulate  the 
mind  to  a  careful  observation  of  nature. 

The  habit  of  observation  depends,  in  part,  upon  the 
general  culture  of  the  mind,  especially  upon  the  asso- 
ciated thoughts  and  feelings  connected  with  external  ob- 
jects. The  farmer's  boy,  with  all  the  advantages  that  the 
country  and  his  employment  afford  him'  for  the  excite- 
ment of  his  observation,  where  no  attention  has  been 
given  to  this  kind  of  education,  sometimes  will  be  found 
extremely  deficient  in  the  habit  of  careful  observation. 
His  perceptions  are  dull  from  lack  of  exercise,  and  his 
mind  is  scarcely  awakened.  Sensations  often  repeated, 
without  being  perceived,  cease  to  excite  the  notice  of 
the  mind,  and  its  noble  powers  lie  dormant  from  want 
of  exercise. 

Those  who  have  been  engaged  in  the  business  of  edu- 
cation well  know  the  different  degrees  of  accuracy  and 
quickness  of  observation  that  are  found  in  children,  and 
also  how  important  it  is,  for  progress  in  intellectual  cult- 
ure, that  this  habit  should  be  early  formed.  Childhood 
is  the  period  of  observation,  and  it  should  then  be  made 
a  primary  object  in  training.  Observation  is  of  essential 
value  in  every  branch  of  education,  and  in  every  depart- 
ment of  life.  The  successful  acquisition  of  every  science 
depending  upon  experiment — indeed,  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  of  every  kind  which  depends  upon  the  exer- 
cise of  the  perceptive  faculties,  the  cultivation  of  taste, 
information  relating  to  the  common  concerns  of  life,  and 
even  the  civilities  of  society — require  a  constant  exercise 
of  this  habit. 

So  long  as  the  observation  of  a  child  does  not  rest 
merely  with  the  immediate  objects  of  perception,  but  con- 
tinues to  connect  them  with  that  information  which  the 
instructor  communicates,  or  which  has  been  derived  from 


382  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

past  observation,  it  is  very  -usefully  employed.  Whatever 
method  is  found  to  invigorate  and  render  the  powers  of 
observation  more  accurate  should  be  frequently  employed. 
Till  the  understanding  has  made  considerable  progress, 
this  should  be  a  leading  object  in  intellectual  culture; 
and  in  every  period  of  it  the  habit  should  be  frequently 
brought  into  use.  By  a  proper  exercise  of  it  the  mem- 
ory and  judgment  are  directly  cultivated ;  and,  while  it 
strengthens  and  rouses  the  energy  of  the  mind,  it  fur- 
nishes it  with  some  of  the  most  serviceable  materials  for 
the  understanding.* 

Exercises  for  the  culture  of  observation  in  young  chil- 
dren should  be  limited  to  a  few  minutes  at  one  time ;  but 
these  may  be  gradually  lengthened  as  the  children  acquire 
greater  command  over  their  attention,  and  manifest  a 
greater  'desire  for  information.  Many  objects  should,  at 
first,  be  offered  successively  to  their  notice,  because  the 
immaturity  of  their  minds  does  not  permit  a  minute  in- 
vestigation of  each;  and  attention  can  then  be  kept  up 
only  by  variety  and  novelty.  As  their  powers  of  obser- 
vation increase  by  exercise,  the  subjects  for  consideration 
may  be  gradually  diminished,  until  one  may  suffice  for  a 
single  lesson.  When  advancement  has  been  made,  they 
may  be  required  to  attend  more  closely  to  a  single  object 
for  a  greater  length  of  time,  and  thus  attain  more  thor- 
oughness of  information.  But  let  it  never  be  forgotten 
that  long  confinement  and  protracted  application  to  one 
subject  should  be  carefully  avoided  with  young  children. 
There  should  be  no  gloom,  no  misery,  associated  with  the 
first  intellectual  exertions.  Happiness  is  the  privilege  of 
childhood. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  external  objects  exert 
an  influence  upon  the  mind  by  means  of  the  senses,  and 

*  Principles  of  Education,  by  Rev.  L.  Carpenter,  LL.D.,  contains  many  of 
tlie  ideas  presented  in  the  foregoing  statements. 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  ACQUISITION.  383 

that  the  influences  which  are  thus  produced  remain  with 
the  mind  as  impressions  or  mental  residua.  "  These  re- 
sidua manifest  themselves  as  so  many  tendencies  to  recur- 
rence^ and  the  larger  the  accumulation  of  them  in  any 
given  form,  the  stronger  that  tendency  becomes.  Hence 
it  is  that  men  who  are  passionately  devoted  to  any  given 
branch  of  knowledge  find  food  for  observation  every- 
where. The  botanist  has  an  eye  for  a  thousand  minute 
plants  which  wholly  escape  the  observation  of  the  ordi- 
nary beholder;  the  entomologist  has  the  same  for  insects; 
the  geologist  for  the  appearance  of  the  soil,  the  rocks,  and 
the  mountains.  Wherever  long  observation  has  accumu- 
lated vast  stores  of  residua,  the  least  stimulus  will  cause 
them  to  recur,  and  every  fresh  object  will  add  something 
to  the  entire  mass  of  our  knowledge."* 

In  subsequent  remarks  on  the  Culture  of  Language  several 
suggestions  will  be  presented  which  are  also  exceedingly  appro- 
priate for  exercising  observation. 

*  MorelPs  Mental  Philosophy. 


884:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  KEPKODUCTIOK 

LANGUAGE. 

IN  considering  the  operations  of  the  mind  through  the 
Perceptive  Faculties,  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  language 
does  not  become  apparent.  Sensations,  perceptions,  and 
conceptions  may  exist,  impressions  may  be  taken  into  the 
mind,  and  these  may  blend  into  ideas  of  objects,  all  with- 
out the  aid  of  language.  But  we  now  come  to  a  point,  in. 
the  development  of  the  human  mind,  where  a  new  ele- 
ment is  required;  one  which  will  enable  the  mind  to 
embody  its  ideas  in  signs  external  to  ourselves,  so  that  it 
can  safely  store  them  away  with  the  certainty  of  finding 
them  again  when  wanted ;  and  also  of  making  them  known 
to  others.  This  element  is  supplied  by  language. 

When  the  mind  has  blended  its  residua  into  simple 
ideas,  and  these  simple  ones  have  in  turn  combined  into 
generalized  forms,  language  comes  in  with  its  symbols, 
bringing  order  and  fixity  to  our  thoughts,  and  adding  the 
power  of  using  them  at  will.  A  single  word  may  sum  up 
the  result  of  a  vast  series  of  individual  impressions  in 
a  generalized  form.  Language  aids  in  condensing  and 
abbreviating  our  ideas.  It  thus  acts  in  relation  to  our 
thoughts  the  part  which  algebraic  symbols  perform  in 
higher  mathematical  calculations.  As  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  keep  all  the  parts  of  a  complicated  calculation  in 
the  mind  without  such  symbols,  so  would  it  be  beyond 
the  possibility  of  mental  power  to  retain  and  use  our  in- 
dividual ideas  without  being  overwhelmed  with  their  in- 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  REPRODUCTION.  385 

finite  multiplicity,  could  we  not  sum  them  up  in  symbols, 
and  use  those  symbols  as  representatives  of  certain  men- 
tal equivalents. 

Although  \ve  perceive  the  world  by  means  of  the  senses, 
it  is  in  and  through  the  forms  of  language  that  we  com- 
prehend it.  We  are  also  brought  into  the  general  cur- 
rent of  human  thoughts  through  the  agency  of  language ; 
and  by  means  of  it  we  are  enabled  to  remember  and  com- 
bine our  ideas  to  an  unlimited  extent.  Just  as  the  sym- 
bols of  numbers  in  algebra  give  us  the  power  of  calculat- 
ing the  most  comprehensive  and  distant  results,  so  the 
symbols  of  ideas  in  language  enable  us  to  combine  our 
thoughts  and  work  out  our  reasonings  to  an  extent  other- 
wise wholly  unattainable. 

The  origin  of  language  has  long  been  a  vexed  question ; 
but  whether  it  sprung  from  the  Divine  Mind,  and  was 
communicated  to  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  Garden  of  Eden ;  or 
whether,  after  the  Creator  had  furnished  man  with  all  the 
necessary  organs,  and  conferred  on  him  the  physical  pow- 
ers of  speech,  it  developed  itself  in  sounds  as  natural  sym- 
bols of  the  mind's  ideas  of  objects,  which  gradually  took 
the  form  of  words  by  common  usage  in  representing  the 
same  things,  and  thus  ultimately  grew  up  from  necessity 
into  a  means  of  communication  between  man  and  man,  or 
not,  this  fact,  at  least,  may  be  asserted  of  it — living  lan- 
guage is  in  the  process  of  daily  creation.  It  is  neither 
complete  nor  stationary.  A  dead  language  is  a  record  of 
some  past  development  of  a  race ;  a  living  language  is  the 
record  of  the  present  thoughts  and  mental  progress  of 
the  nation,  and  of  the  individuals  which  use  it. 

Language  furnishes  the  symbols  of  our  ideas ;  hence  it 
must  change  with  the  ideas  of  the  people ;  and  the  ex- 
tent of  these  changes  is  such  that  some  words  now  sym- 
bolize ideas  directly  opposite  in 
they  once  represented. 

17   'W7ERSIT7] 

^     V       A 


388  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"  Man's  expressive  power  seems  to  Lave  consummated  itself  in 
the  phenomena  of  language.  In  this  form  his  whole  nature,  ani- 
mal, intellectual,  and  moral,  finds  effectual  utterance ;  and  by  this 
instrumentality  does  he  become  pre-eminently  a  progressive  be- 
ing. Language  is  the  channel  in  which  the  ceaseless  stream  of 
mental  action  flows  onward  to  its  great  results.  Without  this 
outlet,  his  soul,  imprisoned  within  itself,  would  stagnate,  and  its 
wondrous  powers  perish  from  inaction. 

"  As  the  medium  of  communication  between  mind  and  mind, 
language  renders  education  practicable,  and  brings  to  the  aid  of 
the  individual  the  accumulated  thoughts  of  all  time  and  of  all 
men.  Language  is  the  peculiar  and  chosen  province  of  education. 
Every  process  of  human  culture  is  conducted  through  its  agency ; 
every  result  attained  in  human  progress  is  recorded  in  its  terms ; 
and  in  every  civilized  and  cultivated  community  language  is  just- 
ly taken  as  the  measure  of  individual  and  social  attainment."* 

The  importance  of  language  will  be  further  considered 
when  treating  of  Memory. 

Culture  in  the  Use  of  Language. — It  has  already 
been  seen  that  our  ideas  are  symbolized  by  means  of 
words,  and  that  language  enables  the  mind  to  use  its 
thoughts  at  will.  It  is  now  proper  to  present  a  few  sug- 
gestions indicating  how  facility  in  the  use  of  this  simplest 
form  of  language  may  be  acquired. 

It  is  well  known  to  those  who  observe  infants  during 
their  early  efforts  at  learning  words  that  they  first  acquire 
the  names  of  things,  afterward  names  of  acts,  and  of 
qualities.  Since  their  commencement  with  language  con- 
sists in  learning  words  which  are  the  names  of  external 
objects,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a  correct  un- 
derstanding of  these  words,  and  a  thorough  symbolization 
of  ideas  by  them. 


*  From  Intellectual  Education,  by  Wm.  Russell,  A.M.,  in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education. 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  REPRODUCTION.  3 87 

The  processes  for  aiding  young  children  in  learning 
this  class  of  words  is  very  plain.  Either  the  things  them- 
selves may  be  shown  them,  and  the  words  properly  asso- 
ciated, or  pictures  can  be  employed  to  represent  to  the 
mind  what  cannot  be  directly  made  the  subject  of  obser- 
vation. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  Language  as  a  Means 
of  Mental  Culture,  by  C.  Marcel : 

"From  the  moment  that  a  child  articulates  distinctly,  various 
familiar  objects  should  be  offered  to  his  notice,  and  their  use  ex- 
plained; their  names  being,  at  the  same  time,  clearly  uttered  for 
him,  he  should  be  made  to  repeat  them  slowly  and  aloud.  But 
he  must  not  be  forced  into  premature  efforts  to  speak,  lest  he 
should  acquire  habits  of  indistinct  and  defective  utterance.  Pre- 
mature walking  is  not  more  injurious  to  the  organs  of  motion 
than  is  premature  speaking  to  the  vocal  organs.  In  order  also  to 
guard  against  fatiguing  him  by  a  dry  repetition  of  words,  the 
instructor  should  enliven  the  exercise  by  making,  in  plain  lan- 
guage and  in  a  playful,  manner,  some  simple  observations  on  the 
nature  and  use  of  the  things  which  he  is  called  upon  to  name. 

"  This  exercise  should  at  first  be  limited  to  a  few  objects  at 
one  time,  and  the  same  things  should  be  repeatedly  presented 
to  him,  associated  with  their  names,  until  he  perfectly  knows 
these  words.  His  vocabulary  should  be  gradually  extended  by 
the  introduction  of  new  objects,  which  he  is  made  to  observe 
and  name,  such  as  articles  of  dress,  food,  furniture — everything 
which  he  can  hold  in  his  hand,  or  which  may  be  seen  either 
from  the  window  or  out-of-doors.  This  mode  of  proceeding 
will  soon  put  a  young  child  in  possession  of  a  large  number  of 
useful  nouns. 

"  As  the  child's  intellect  opens  and  becomes  capable  of  exam- 
ining objects  minutely,  of  distinguishing  their  resemblances  and 
differences,  of  noticing  their  parts,  their  matter,  their  color,  their 
form,  and  their  number,  his  attention  should  be  successively  di- 
rected to  all  these  points.  Thus  will  his  mind  be  early  brought 


388  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

in  contact  with  the  external  world,  and  be  duly  exercised  by  as- 
cribing to  every  object  of  sense  its  qualities  and  peculiar  condi- 
tion. He  will  also  easily  remember  the  words,  when  the  ideas 
they  signify  are  once  clearly  apprehended.  A  correct  acquaint- 
ance with  the  meaning  and  application  of  words  must  not  be 
deemed  a  matter  of  little  moment  in  the  first  years  of  life.  If 
we  consider  the  disastrous  results  to  which  ignorance  on  these 
points  has  led,  and  the  inconvenience  which  often  arises  to  the 
best  educated  among  us  from  this  single  source,  we  shall  find 
that  time  well  employed  which  is  devoted  to  securing  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  meaning  of  words. 

"The  instructor  should  employ  every  means  in  his  power  to 
guard  his  pupils  against  using  obscure  terms,  or  words  without 
definite  ideas  attached  to  them.  To  this  effect  objects  and  facts 
must  not  be  brought  under  their  notice  in  very  rapid  succession. 
The  introduction  of  a  new  expression  should  be  preceded  by 
the  perception  of  the  thing  signified,  or  the  illustration  of  the 
fact  which  it  serves  to  designate.  They  should,  as  it  were,  be 
made  to  feel  the  want  of  the  word  or  expression.  Then  it  will 
serve,  as  it  ought,  both  to  retain  the  impression  and  to  recall  it 
as  occasion  requires.  By  this  means,  also,  their  knowledge  of 
words  will  keep  pace  with  their  ideas.  Some  people  have  more 
words  than  ideas ;  others  have  more  ideas  than  words.  Of  these 
two  evils,  the  second  is  the  smaller ;  for  we  only  find  it  an  incon- 
venience not  to  be  able  adequately  to  express  all  our  thoughts; 
but  we  render  ourselves  ridiculous  by  misapplying  words  for 
want  of  knowing  their  corresponding  ideas. 

"  Children  should  be  encouraged  to  state  not  only  what  they 
know,  but  what  they  can  discover;  they  should  indirectly  be 
made  to  feel  a  wish  for  any  information  they  require ;  they 
should  be  allowed  frequent  opportunities  of  asking  questions  and 
unfolding  their  own  ideas;  they  should  be  desired  to  account- for 
facts,  to  state  the  causes  of  the  effects  which  they  witness." 

When  the  minds  of  children  have  become  stimulated 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  lead  them  to  be  eager  for  informa- 
tion, do  not  repress  this  desire  for  knowledge  by  refusing 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  REPRODUCTION.  389 

to  answer,  nor  allow  them  to  ask  all  the  questions  them- 
selves. Frequently  ply  them  with  questions  which  will 
lead  them  to  tell  what  they  know  of  the  objects  that  they 
see,  and  the  sounds  which  they  hear ;  and  cause  them  also 
to  gain  ability  to  answer,  by  observing  carefully  those 
things  about  which  the  questions  relate. 

Request  them  to  find  resemblances  and  differences  be- 
tween two  or  more  objects,  and  to  name  things  which 
possess  in  common  any  given  property,  and  others  which 
have  peculiar  and  distinct  properties.  Teach  them  to 
judge  by  their  senses  alone  of  distances  in  length,  in 
height,  or  in  depth ;  also  of  the  dimensions,  weights,  and 
capacities  of  things.  These  trials  of  skill  may  be  made 
objects  of  playful  competition  between  children. 

"As  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  these  lessons  is  to  acquire  a 
command  of  words,  young  people  should  not  be  allowed  to  answer 
in  monosyllables  ;  or,  rather,  questions  should  be  put  to  them,  so 
as  to  require  more  than  a  mere  word  of  assent  or  dissent.  A 
single  yes,  or  no,  often  proceeds  from  a  want  of  due  considera- 
tion of  the  subject.  Let  them  be  encouraged  to  express  their 
doubts  freely  on  every  subject,  and  the  little  discussions  arising 
therefrom  will  be  profitable,  provided  the  confidence  and  vivacity 
with  which  they  are  carried  on  be  tempered  by  modesty  and 
courtesy.  They  will  remove  that  awkward  diffidence  which, 
when  not  early  counteracted,  often  proves  an  obstacle  to  success 
in  after-life. 

"  These  conversations  are  admirably  calculated  for  inuring  the 
young  to  mental  labor,  and  preparing  them  for  future  exertion 
in  every  walk  of  science  and  literature.  There  is  not  a  subject 
which  could  not,  by  easy  transition,  be  entered  upon,  no  infor^ 
mation  which  could  not  be  introduced.  Things  the  most  famil- 
iar, circumstances  the  most  trivial,  may  give  rise  to  instructive 
and  interesting  observations,  and  to  the  highest  contemplations. 
Any  object  in  the  house,  in  the  street,  or  in  the  fields,  a  toy — 
anything  which  is  within  reach,  or  within  view — all  that  nature 


390  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

has  produced,  or  art  has  modified,  can  be  made  a  subject  of  ob- 
servation. The  humblest  as  well  as  the  noblest  objects  in  crea- 
tion may  furnish  inexhaustible  topics  of  conversation,  and  lead, 
by  a  contemplation  of  the  works  of  the  Creator,  to  the  manifes- 
tation of  his  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness. 

"  The  abundance  of  matter  in  these  lessons  always  affords  the 
means  of  making  instruction  interesting  to  young  people.  Every 
new  object  which  is  submitted  to  their  examination  becomes  val- 
uable, not  only  because  it  exercises  the  mind  and  gives  positive 
information,  but  also  because  the  facts  to  which  it  leads  are  nec- 
essarily connected  in  their  minds  with  similar  facts  previously  as- 
certained. The  more  numerous  the  facts  which  children  collect, 
the  more  will  their  judgment  be  rectified  and  invigorated,  and 
the  more  clear  and  extensive  will  be  their  knowledge  of  words. 

"  These  lessons  cultivate  in  young  people  the  talent  of  rational 
conversation,  which,  in  ordinary  education,  is  entirely  left  to 
chance,  although  it  is  the  most  useful,  the  most  social,  and  the 
most  intellectual  of  all  talents.  They  impart  the  free,  excursive 
acquaintance  with  various  learning  which  makes  the  pleasing 
and  instructive  companion ;  and  if  they  were  generally  adopted, 
they  would  not  fail,  in  the  course  of  time,  to  raise  the  tone  of 
conversation  in  society.  The  powers  of  language  of  the  learners 
being  constantly  called  forth  in  proposing  and  answering  ques- 
tions, in  stating  the  results  of  their  observations,  and  in  making 
verbal  or  written  summaries  of  the  subjects  on  which  they  have 
conversed,  they  will  necessarily  acquire  great  facility  of  expres- 
sion in  connection  with  great  clearness  of  thought.  And  if  they 
excel  in  conversation,  they  have  every  prospect  of  success  in  pub- 
lic speaking  and  writing. 

"  The  variety  of  sensations  and  the  pleasing  action  of  the  men- 
tal faculties  throughout  these  animated  lessons  will,  by  arousing 
the  creative  powers  of  imagination,  produce  fertility  of  thought 
and  aptitude  for  extempore  speaking.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  agreeable  emotions  arising  from  the  contemplation  of  nature 
and  the  admiration  of  its  wonders,  the  power  of  association  in 
the  young  will  retain  that  vividness  and  that  freshness  which  are 
the  life-springs  of  eloquence.  The  most  beautiful  images  of  ora- 


POWERS  OF  MENTAL  REPRODUCTION.  391 

tory  are  those  which  it  borrows  from  the  material  realities  of 
nature.  The  more  diversified  the  instruction,  the  greater  will  be 
the  number  of  ascertained  facts,  and  the  more  extensive  the  com- 
mand of  language.  Expressions  and  facts  thus  treasured  up  by 
the  mind  will  remain  ready  for  future  use." 


392  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


MEMORY. 

THOSE  mental  operations  by  which  ideas  are  produced 
have  already  been  considered.  Intimately  connected  with, 
and  following  these,  appear  a  new  class  of  mental  mani- 
festations— those  exhibited  in  retaining  and  recalling  ideas' 
that  have  been  previously  acquired.  The  powers  of  the 
mind  manifested  by  these  processes  are  called  Memory. 
Although  we  speak  of  memory  as  a  faculty  of  the  mind, 
we  by  no  means  regard  it  as  a  single  mental  power,  but 
rather  as  a  combination  of  several  powers,  the  idea  of 
which  is  represented  by  the  term  memory.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  faculty  is  probably  more  generally  appre- 
ciated than  that  of  any  other  power  belonging  to  the 
mind ;  yet  how  we  remember,  and  what  definite  plans  of 
instruction  should  be  pursued  to  render  memory  the  most 
serviceable  to  us,  is  very  imperfectly  understood. 

The  power  of  memory  depends  upon  attention,  and  the 
order  and  system  which  we  give  to  the  arrangement  of 
our  ideas  by  classification  and  association  through  the  aid 
of  language. 

"  No  one  with  any  amount  of  attention  could  retain  a  perfect 
mental  representation  of  the  stars  and  groups  of  stars  in  the  sky, 
were  there  no  further  mental  activity  exercised  upon  them  than 
their  mere  perception.  But  let  some  principle  of  order  and  ar- 
rangement be  brought  in ;  let  the  groups  be  classified,  and  let 
the  relative  positions  be  marked  by  association ;  let  the  whole 
firmament  be  thus  mapped  out  upon  some  intelligible  principle, 
and  there  is  a  clew  given  by  which  the  whole  can  be  retained  in 
the  memory,  and  the  separate  portions  at  any  time  be  recalled. 
And  what  is  true  here  is  equally  true,  according  to  its  measure, 


MEMORY.  393 

in  every  other  case.  Nothing  that  we  see,  hear,  or  think  of  ex- 
ists alone.  Everything  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  system  of  ideas 
of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  with  which  it  has  numberless  con- 
nections ;  and  it  is  by  surrounding  a  fact  with  a  net-work  of  such 
ideas,  all  duly  ordered  and  arranged,  that  we  are  enabled  to  go 
back  to  the  exact  point  in  the  system  where  we  shall  be  able  to 
recover  it,  and  bring  it  forth  to  our  consciousness."* 

Suppose  we  wish  to  remember  a  certain  flower.  By 
means  of  the  perceptive  faculties  we  examine  it  carefully, 
and  locate  the  facts  obtained  in  due  order  in  some  well- 
arranged  system  of  botany.  Then,  in  subsequent  efforts, 
to  recall  those  facts,  as  the  mind  passes  along  from  the 
class  to  the  family,  and  the  genus  and  species,  its  charac- 
teristics readily  recur  to  the  memory. 

It  does  not  matter,  so  far  as  the  principle  of  memory  is 
concerned,  whether  the  links  which  connect  our  ideas  in 
a  systematic  arrangement  be  logical  or  practical,  whether 
natural  or  artificial ;  the  important  feature  is  order  and 
system  in  blending,  classifying,  and  associating  our  ideas. 
However,  it  is  very  desirable,  in  cultivating  the  memory, 
to  acquire  habits  of  forming  natural  connections  in  asso- 
ciating ideas,  since  the  links  thus  forged  are  stronger  and 
of  a  wider  use  to  the  mind  than  those  produced  by  artifi- 
cial associations.  Nevertheless,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
create  artificial  links  between  our  ideas,  where  very  few 
natural  ones  exist.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  mat- 
ter of  dates  and  numbers.  The  whole  principle  of  every 
system  of  mnemonics  is  based  upon  the  plan  of  creating 
a  connected  series  of  artificial  links  to  aid  the  memory, 
so  that,  when  any  one  part  of  the  series  is  given,  the  mind 
can  pass  by  regular  steps  to  any  other,  and  thus  drop 
down  upon  any  particular  number  or  date  that  may  be 
required. 

*  Morell's  Mental  Philosophy. 

17* 


394  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"  The  power  of  memory  may  be  represented  under  the  figure 
of  a  spider's  web,  which  sends  out  its  threads  in  all  directions, 
establishing  connection  with  every  part,  and  with  the  central 
point  of  the  whole.  When  the  mind  has  woven  such  a  web 
around  any  object,  it  can  pass  along  any  of  the  threads  at  pleas- 
ure, and  reach  any  given  point  in  the  system.  Thus,  it  only  de- 
pends on  volition  to  keep  the  clew  to  every  idea  we  may  desire 
to  recall  in  our  minds,  and  to  bring  it  at  any  moment  back  into 
the  light  of  consciousness."* 

This  view  of  memory  gives  an  idea  of  the  great  im- 
portance of  giving  proper  attention  to  its  laws  in  methods 
of  instruction.  It  shows  us  that  if  we  would  fix  impor- 
tant truths  and  principles  indelibly  in  the  mind  of  a  pu- 
pil, so  that  he  can  recall  them  at  will,  we  must  establish 
connections  between  them  and  other  ideas  already  exist- 
ing in  his  mind.  First,  a  system  of  natural  links  should 
be  established,  since  this  process  develops  the  most  im- 
portant power  of  memory.  This  may  be  accomplished 
through  the  blending  of  similar  ideas  into  generalized 
forms,  and  then  classifying  and  connecting  these  with 
kindred  combinations  of  thought.  Other  connections 
may  be  made  by  means  of  practical  associations ;  and  still 
others  by  logical,  and  even  by  artificial,  links,  so  that  it 
will  be  impossible  for  the  idea  or  truth  to  remain  isolated 
in  the  mind.  In  this  way  the  bridges  will  become  so  nu- 
merous that  the  mind  can  easily  return  to  the  truth  thus 
lodged  there  at  any  future  period. 

Instead  of  this  thorough  discipline  of  the  powers  of 
memory  in  the  school-room,  and  the  development  of  these 
several  aids  to  learning,  the  pupil  is  too  commonly  left  to 
struggle  on  in  vain  efforts  at  the  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge by  merely  trying  to  "commit  to  memory"  words 
which  barely  represent  to  him  so  many  isolated  ideas. 

*  Mo  roll's  Mental  Philosophy. 


MEMORY.  395 

It  is  no  wonder  that  neither  the  words  nor  the  ideas  which 
they  symbolize  are  forth-coming  when  an  examination  is 
made  to  ascertain  what  the  pupil  has  learned. 

Importance  of  Language.  —  Notwithstanding  the 
memory  is  so  generally  abused  by  committing  mere 
words,  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  words  are  of  but  little 
importance,  and  may  therefore  be  slighted.  Just  the  re- 
verse is  true.  Voluntary  memory  is  based  upon  language. 
"Were  our  ideas  not  symbolized  by  words,  or  signs,  we 
could  not  recall  them  at  will.  By  means  of  language  we 
can  hold  our  ideas  before  us  as  something  existing  apart 
from  ourselves,  and  combine,  or  separate,  or  place  them  in 
any  relationship  that  we  may  choose.  This  is  the  high- 
est order  of  memory.  But,  in  cultivating  the  memory 
through  the  aid  of  language,  care  must  be  taken  to  secure 
the  ideas  which  the  words  symbolize  by  means  of  classifi- 
cation, also  by  associating  them  with  the  words,  and  the 
words  with  the  things  represented.  By  these  processes 
the  mind  may  gain  such  a  power  as  will  render  the  mem- 
ory both  accurate  and  ready. 

Association  of  ideas  alone  produces  but  an  involuntary 
memory.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  the  recalling  of  an 
idea  by  the  presence  of  that  with  which  it  is  associated, 
without  the  influence  of  the  will.  The  sight  of  an  object, 
a  sound,  an  odor,  a  taste,  or  a  feeling,  may  each  recall 
ideas  which  have  been  previously  associated  with  them ; 
but  the  mind  has  not  the  power  to  recall  at  will,  unaided 
by  the  presence  of  the  associated  object  or  quality,  ideas 
that  have  not  been  symbolized  with  words  or  signs. 

Human  and  Brute  Memory. — Probably  here  is  the 
dividing  line  between  human  memory  and  brute  memory. 
The  human  memory  deals  with  ideas,  words,  symbols, 
and  even  abstract  ideas ;  and  forms  natural,  artificial,  and 
logical  associations  with  these;  and  is  subject  to  the  will. 


396  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The  firute  memory  deals  with  simple  ideas  and  things 
only,  and  makes  none  but  natural  associations ;  and  the 
ideas  are  recalled  l)y  the  presence  of  the  associated  object,- 
without  the  influence  of  the  will.  Human  memory  is  vol- 
untary;  brute  memory  is  involuntary. 

The  animal  that  learns  to  perform  a  certain  act  on 
hearing  a  given  sound  remembers  the  act  by  associating 
it  with  the  sound.  A  horse  that  has  travelled  a  road 
only  once,  when  it  again  passes  the  same  way  recollects 
by  association  the  places  where  it  stopped,  and  even  inci- 
dents that  occurred.  A  dog  that  has  been  whipped  for 
some  act,  associates  the  whipping  with  the  act  done,  and 
thus  is  prevented  from  repeating  it  through  this  associa- 
tion.* 

Man  also  uses  this  same  process  of  memory — that  of 
simple  association ;  and,  although  it  is  a  low  order  of  de- 
velopment of  this  faculty,  yet  it  is  of  great  importance 
when  properly  exercised,  and  aided  with  ideas  symbolized 
by  words,  and  these  words  associated  with  objects.  By 
this  means,  however,  it  becomes  a  very  different  process 
from  that  of  direct  association  alone,  and  a  most  valuable 
aid  in  giving  facility  to  memory. 

Culture  of  Memory. — The  powers  of  memory  depend, 
to  a  great  degree,  upon  the  cultivation  of  those  faculties 
by  which  knowledge  is  acquired.  If  the  perceptive  fac- 
ulties be  clear  and  active,  the  observation  quick  and  accu- 
rate, the  power  of  attention  steady  and  strong,  and  habits 
of  classifying  and  associating  ideas  carefully  formed,  the 
memory  will  firmly  hold  and  readily  reproduce  the  ideas 
and  words  which  have  been  duly  acquired.  Therefore, 
by  cultivating  the  powers  of  mental  acquisition,  the  foun- 
dation for  a  retentive  and  ready  memory  will  be  laid. 

*  An  interesting  chapter  on  the  "  Difference  between  Man  and  the  Infe- 
rior Animals  "  may  be  found  in  Dr.  Hooker's  Human  Physiology,  p.  347. 


MEMOKY.  397 

Three  Periods  of  Memory. — The  memory  assumes 
somewhat  different  aspects  during  the  several  periods  of 
mental  development.  Because  of  these  various  condi- 
tions or  tendencies  of  memory,  it  is  especially  important 
that  the  processes  for  its  cultivation  should  correspond  in 
character  to  its  several  stages  of  mental  development. 

First  Period. — In  infancy  the  memory  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  the  simple  materials  furnished  by  the  powers 
of  mental  acquisition — ideas,  and  their  symbols.  This  pe- 
riod usually  embraces  about  the  first  eight  or  ten  years  of 
the  child's  life.  Since  those  powers  of  the  mind  which 
acquire  ideas  are  earliest  developed,  and  most  active  dur- 
ing the  first  period,  children  should  then  be  chiefly  train- 
ed in  the  attainment  and  memory  of  ideas  and  facts,  and 
the  words  which  represent  them.  But  the  words  should 
always  receive  an  immediately  subsequent  consideration, 
since  their  oflice  is  that  of  symbolizing  the  ideas  so  that 
they  may  be  readily  acted  upon  by  the  memory.  During 
this  period  of  acquisition  the  order  should  be,  first  the 
idea,  then  the  word  as  its  sign. 

Young  children  should  not  be  required  to  memorize 
words  without  having  an  idea  of  their  meaning.  It  is 
true  that  their  ideas  must  necessarily  be  less  complete 
than  those  of  adults,  but  they  should  be  correct  as  far  as 
they  go,  and  such  as  the  child's  mind  can  grasp. 

The  exercise  of  the  verbal  memory  merely  is  one  of 
the  great  errors  in  the  methods  of  school-room  instruc- 
tion, yet  no  method  is  more  common  than  this  in  those 
primary  schools  where  concert  repetition  is  generally 
employed.  The  mere  memorizing  of  words  is  allowed 
too  prominent  a  place  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  schools, 
in  comparison  with  its  small  educational  value.  The  rep- 
etition of  words  is  erroneously  supposed  to  aid  in  cultivat- 
ing the  memory ;  whereas  it  may  produce  an  opposite  ef- 


398  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

feet.  Words  continuously  repeated,  without  associating 
them  with  ideas,  may  become  so  familiar  to  the  ear,  that, 
like  the  ticking  of  a  clock  in  our  room,  they  rarely  attract 
the  attention  of  the  mind.  When  such  is  the  condition, 
the  repetition  of  words  becomes  not  only  a  loss  of  time 
but  a  positive  mental  injury.  If  the  habit  of  remember- 
ing words  without  understanding  them  be  once  formed,  it 
will  ever  afterward  prove  a  great  obstacle  to  the  success- 
ful acquisition  of  knowledge. 

Some  teachers  make  the  great  mistake,  in  school  exer- 
cises, of  treating  this  mental  power  as  if  it  were  the  chief 
or  only  instrument  by  which  knowledge  is  acquired  and 
the  mind  cultivated.  Acting  upon  this  erroneous  suppo- 
sition, they  require  their  pupils  to  "commit  to  memory" 
definitions,  rules,  formulas,  problems,  and  demonstrations 
in  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geometry,  and  pages  of  geog- 
raphy, and  chapters  of  history,  without  understanding 
them,  as  if  the  repetition  of  these  alone  could  work  out 
the  development  of  the  mind  by  some  mysterious  trans- 
mutation. Memory  is  not  a  faculty  of  mental  acquisition, 
but  rather  one  of  preserving  and  reproducing  the  knowl- 
edge which  is  accumulated  through  other  faculties. 

The  suggestions  given  under  the  head  of  "  Culture  in 
Language  "  in  the  preceding  pages  will  afford  many  use- 
ful hints  relative  to  the  cultivation  of  memory  during 
this  first  period,  as  language  and  memory  are  intimately 
connected. 

Second  Period.  —  During  the  second  period,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  age  of  eight  or  ten  to  about  fifteen,  the 
memory  is  occupied  more  extensively  with  language,  as 
the  representative  of  ideas  embodied  in  connected  thoughts. 
Hence,  this  is  the  period  especially  adapted  to  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  habit  of  "  committing  to  memory  "  language 
that  expresses  thoughts  accurately  and  beautifully. 


MEMORY.  399 

The  recollection  of  ideas  is  at  all  times  of  the  greatest 
importance,  but  the  memory  should  ~be  especially  exercised 
on  words  and  language  during  the  second  period  of  mental 
development.  While  the  ideas  should  still  receive  due 
attention,  yet  greater  efforts  may  now  be  made  toward 
forming  habits  of. ready  and  accurate  recollection  of  lan- 
guage. The  importance  of  such  a  habit  must  be  apparent 
to  every  one,  when  it  is  remembered  how  much  more  de- 
sirable it  is  to  be  able  to  repeat  the  exact  statements  of 
others  instead  of  giving  what  we  think  were  their  ideas. 
If  their  words  are  given,  every  one  may  judge  for  him- 
self what  they  mean  ;  but  if  our  own  ideas  of  their  mean- 
ing are  given  instead  of  their  words,  serious  misunder- 
standings may  be  the  result.  Many  instances  have  occur- 
red in  which  grievous  consequences  have  resulted  from 
persons  relating  their  own  apprehensions  of  the  meaning 
of  others,  instead  of  what  they  actually  said. 

During  this  period  the  work  of  instruction  should  be 
so  conducted  as  to  establish  habits  of  readily  committing 
to  memory  the  thoughts  of  others;  not  only  because  at 
this  time  the  mind  is  especially  adapted  to  this  exercise, 
but  because,  if  neglected  until  the  mind  has  attained  that 
maturity  and  fixity  of  habits  which  are  acquired  during 
the  third  period,  this  habit  of  readiness  and  accuracy  in 
the  recollection  of  language  probably  will  not  be  acquired 
at  all. 

Frequent  "oral  repetitions"  aid  the  memory  through 
the  sense  of  hearing,  by  the  associations  of  successive 
sounds,  and  may  profitably  be  employed  for  this  purpose 
after  the  ideas  and  language  both  have  been  taught  to 
the  children.  While  this  is  one  of  the  processes  which 
may  be  employed  in  committing  to  memory,  yet  it  is  the 
least  intellectual  of  all,  and  should  be  used  only  to  aid 
other  and  more  intellectual  modes. 

Again,  the  importance  of  learning  to  remember  Ian- 


400  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

guage  will  be  understood,  when  it  is  considered  that  ideas 
fade  from  the  memory  much  sooner  when,  they  are  not 
associated  with  words.  But  it  must  not  be  inferred  that 
the  mere  memory  of  words,  without  associating  them 
with  their  ideas,  will  be  of  any  educational  service 
whatever. 

By  the  practice  of  stating  clearly  in  words  what  we 
wish  to  remember,  the  memory  will  obtain  great  pow- 
er over  our  ideas.  "Without  some  such  expression  of 
thoughts  in  language,  our  ideas  flow  into  each  other  so 
that  they  present  no  clearly-defined  lines  of  thought  by 
which  we  can  recall  them.  This  shows  the  importance 
of  requiring  pupils  to  express,  partly  at  least,  in  their 
own  words  facts  which  we  desire  them  to  remember. 

During  this  period  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
learning  geography,  history,  biography;  committing  to 
memory  declamations,  poetry,  quotations,  and  sentiments, 
as  a  means  of  storing  the  mind  with  gems  of  thought 
which  are  clothed  in  beautiful  language,  and  also  for  con- 
tributing to  a  ready  use  of  good  language. 

Third  Period. — During  the  third  period,  commencing  at 
about  the  age  of  fifteen,  the  memory  begins  to  come  more 
directly  under  the  influence  of  the  judgment,  and  to  deal 
with  reasons,  principles,  and  laws — cause  and  effect.  Yet 
neither  ideas  nor  words  should  be  neglected  even  then. 
In  this  stage  of  development  a  few  words  may  be  em- 
ployed to  represent  many  thoughts,  and  a  short  combina- 
tion of  words  to  imply  trains  of  reasoning. 

The  habit  of  classifying  ideas,  and  referring  particular 
ones  to  general  principles,  will  be  found  to  greatly  aid  the 
memory  during  this  period.  Indeed,  the  power  of  mem- 
ory depends  for  its  strength  and  facility  upon  properly 
classifying  and  associating  our  ideas,  and  connecting  them 
with  other  thoughts  and  facts  previously  acquired. 


MEMORY.  401 

Employ  as  many  of  the  senses  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  as  possible,  for  each  one  will  convey  its  peculiar 
form  of  impressions  to  the  mind,  and  the  blending  of  these 
together  into  ideas,  the  symbolizing  of  the  ideas  with 
words,  and  the  classification  and  association  of  the  words, 
furnish  a  great  number  of  links  by  which  the  knowledge 
may  be  connected  and  recalled  at  will.  If  an  object  be 
examined  by  sight,  then  by  touch,  and  the  ideas  which 
are  thus  gained  of  it  be  clearly  stated  in  words,  the  mind 
will  receive  a  third  and  new  impression  through  the  sense 
of  hearing.  Here,  then,  will  be  three  distinct  classes  of 
impressions,  derived  by  means  of  the  senses  of  seeing,  feel- 
ing, and  hearing,  to  unite  in  forming  a  complete  idea  of 
the  object,  and  also  at  the  same  time  furnishing  three 
classes  of  links  by  which  it  may  be  remembered. 

In  conclusion,  let  it  be  again  impressed  on  the  mind  of 
teachers  that  the  processes  of  instruction  to  be  pursued 
should  always  be  such  that  each  subject  and  fact  shall 
reach  the  mind  through  the  greatest  number  of  senses 
practicable ;  and  especially  let  the  sense  of  sight  be  em- 
ployed, when  possible,  in  some  form,  to  aid  in  securing 
clear  conceptions;  and  let  a  statement  of  the  facts  be 
clearly  given  in  words,  and  associations  be  made  with 
kindred  facts  previously  acquired ;  then  memory  will  be 
strong  and  ready,  and  progress  in  knowledge  rapid  and 
permanent. 


402  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


ATTENTION. 

ATTENTION  is  a  mental  phenomenon  indicating  a  most 
important  power  of  the  mind.  It  does  not,  however,  be- 
long to  that  class  of  powers  which  are  usually  called 
faculties.  Instead  of  acting  by  itself  directly  upon  the 
world  without  through  the  senses,  its  mode  of  influence 
is  by  and  through  the  other  faculties.  In  its  simplest 
state  it  appears  to  be  merely  the  notice  which  the  mind 
takes  of  its  sensations ;  and  frequently  this  attention 
seems  to  be  involuntary.  This  is  especially  the  case  in 
very  young  children,  when  various  objects  are  employed 
to  attract  the  notice  of  the  mind.  But  by  degrees  the 
mind  exerts  a  greater  and  greater  controlling  influence 
over  it,  until  attention  finally  becomes  a  voluntary  act. 
In  this  capacity  it  is  capable  of  being  greatly  strengthened 
by  cultivation. 

Of  itself  "  it  originates  nothing,  it  teaches  nothing,  it 
puts  us  in  possession  of  no  new  truth;"  yet  it  is  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  other  mental  powers  that  they 
would  be  of  little  avail  without  it.  Thus  we  see  that  its 
importance  can  hardly  be  over-estimated,  since  the  several 
faculties  would  become  so  deficient  in  the  ability  of  con- 
tinued action  without  it,  that  even  natural  acuteness  could 
accomplish  but  little,  and  we  should  be  destitute  of  those 
mental  characteristics  and  steady  habits  which  contribute 
so  largely  to  success  in  life. 

"  The  force  of  attention  is  simply  the  perceptiveness  of  the 
mind  adjusting  itself  perfectly  to  the  objects  it  contemplates,  so 
that  they  may  produce  their  full  effect  upon  it.  Until  this  ad- 
justment is  effected,  the  impression  of  the  objects  must  necessari- 


ATTENTION.  403 

]y  be  confused  and  imperfect;  as,  in  a  camera-obscura,  the  lens 
must  be  placed  in  a  proper  position  to  receive  all  the  light  that 
comes  from  the  landscape,  or  the  picture  will  be  blurred  and  in- 
distinct. The  mind  cannot  give  its  perceptive  force  to  a  multi- 
tude of  objects  at  the  same  time ;  it  can  take  up  only  one  thing 
with  effect  at  one  instant."* 

Attention  is  a  bending  of  the  mind  to,  or  a  stretching 
of  it  toward,  an  object.  It  enables  the  mind  to  arrest  and 
detain  the  thoughts  upon  a  particular  object  of  interest, 
excluding  for  the  time  being  other  mental  operations. 
It  may  become,  for  the  moment,  the  sole  occupation  of 
the  mind,  as  when  we  have  heard  a  sound  that  greatly 
excites  our  interest,  and  listen  for  its  repetition. 

In  order  to  make  progress  in  intellectual  culture,  habits 
of  attention  must  be  gained.  It  is  exceedingly  important 
that  these  be  acquired  very  early,  because  the  utmost  effi- 
ciency will  be  given  to  all  the  other  operations  of  the 
mind  by  these  habits,  and  especially  to  the  acquisition  of 
clear,  impressive,  and  serviceable  ideas.  Attention  should 
be  associated  with  volition  as  early  as  possible ;  for  when 
this  power  has  become  subject  to  the  will  the  foundation 
is  laid  for  every  degree  of  mental  culture  which  circum- 
stances will  permit. 

Culture  of  Attention. — The  habit  of  attention  is  an 
essential  part  of  observation ;  therefore  it  must  be  ac- 
quired before  progress  in  intellectual  culture  can  be  made. 
If  we  observe  a  child  whose  attention  is  absorbed  with 
anything,  we  shall  discover  that  sometimes  it  is  curiosity 
that  leads  him  to  notice  so  carefully  whatever  may  then  be 
occupying  the  thoughts.  At  other  times,  or  in  different 
children,  the  simple  love  of  activity,  or  desire  to  be  con- 
stantly doing  something,  seems  to  be  the  leading  motive. 
Again,  we  may  notice  that  the  child  does  not  appear  to 

*  Human  Culture,  by  Garvey. 


404:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

be  affected  by  either  of  the  preceding  influences,  but 
by  sympathy.  Beside  these,  there  is  another  power  still 
which  acts  in  producing  attention ;  and  although  it  may 
operate  in  conjunction  with  and  through  the  influence  of 
either  of  the  motives  already  mentioned,  it  nevertheless 
is  capable  of  controlling  all  the  other  influences;  that 
power  is  the  will — the  executive  force  of  the  mind.  Thus 
may  we  discover  what  the  appropriate  means  to  be  em- 
ployed in  cultivating  this  important  habit  are,  by  observing 
the  various  influences  acting  upon  the  minds  of  children 
in  producing  attention. 

Curiosity  exists  in  every  child,  and  it  may  be  strongly 
excited  by  directing  the  attention  to  proper  subjects,  and 
imparting  information  in  a  manner  suited  to  the  child's 
capacity.  The  teacher  who  adapts  instruction  to  the  in- 
telligence of  his  pupils,  and  interests  their  feelings,  and 
changes  the  mode  of  presenting  the  object  or  the  subject- 
matter,  as  the  interest  and  the  ability  of  the  children  to 
attend  seem  to  indicate,  will  have  no  difficulty  in  securing 
their  attention. 

Love  of  Activity  is  another  motive  which  sustains  the 
attention,  because  activity  affords  pleasure  to  children. 
Physical  activity  is  no  more  natural  to  the  child  than 
mental  activity.  That  physical  strength  will  not  be  ac- 
quired by  a  passive  condition  of  the  bodily  organs  is  no 
more  certain  than  that  the  mind  can  be  strengthened  only 
by  its  own  activity.  Physical  and  mental  action  should 
be  combined  in  efforts  to  strengthen  the  attention.  Va- 
rious modes  of  doing  this  will  be  devised  by  the  skilful 
teacher.  As  one  mode  of  continuing  the  attention  upon 
a  given  subject,  the  teacher  might  require  the  pupils  to 
represent  their  ideas  of  it  by  actions,  or  by  drawings,  or 
in  writing,  and  also  to  express  them  in  language. 


ATTENTION.  405 

Sympathy  is  another  strong  incentive  to  attention  ;  but 
it  depends  for  its  power  upon  the  personal  influence  which 
the  teacher  has  attained  over  the  pupils  through  the  exer- 
cise of  the  moral  feelings.  Where  this  personal  ascen- 
dency exists,  and  the  children  see  that  the  teacher  is  in- 
terested in  the  subject  or  work  before  them,  they  will 
make  efforts  not  only  to  imitate  her,  but,  from  the  happi- 
ness which  is  afforded  them  through  sympathy,  even  to 
anticipate  her  desires  and  actions. 

"There  is  nothing  so  likely  to  excite  in  children  with  whom 
we  associate  tastes  for  and  attention  to  any  subject  as  the  exhi- 
bition of  those  tastes  and  habits  in  ourselves.  Where  the  power 
of  sympathy  has  been  established,  the  idea  that  we  are  constantly 
occupied  about  them  may  excite  the  gratitude  of  children,  but  it 
will  not  determine  the  direction  of  their  inclinations.  Yet  if 
they  see  that  our  interest  is  awakened  and  our  curiosity  excited 
by  making  some  new  observations,  or  by  ascertaining  some  new 
fact,  they  will  soon  try  to  anticipate  our  discoveries.  If  they  ob- 
serve us  interested  in  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  in  watching  the 
labors  of  the  bee,  or  the  metamorphoses  of  insects,  or  in  admiring 
the  beauties  of  a  butterfly,  or  even  manifesting  a  lively  interest  in 
the  exercises  of  the  school,  they  will  soon  be  delighted  with  the 
same  occupations.  Example,  emulation,  curiosity,  and  sympathy 
— the  most  natural  stimulants  at  this  age,  when  pleasure  is  so 
vividly  enjoyed,  and  the  idea  of  utility  so  indistinct — act  in  uni- 
son in  leading  children  to  habits  of  attention."* 

How  immensely  important,  then,  it  becomes  that  every 
teacher  should  possess  and  manifest  a  genuine,  hearty  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  instruction  ! 

We  cannot  secure  that  quality  of  attention  which  is 
necessary  to  success  in  education  by  mere  outward  com- 
pulsion. Hence  the  importance  of  understanding  the 
several  motives  which  have  been  previously  described, 
and  their  influence  in  the  formation  of  habits  of  atten- 

*  Progressive  Education,  by  Madame  Neckcr  de  Saussure. 


406  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

tion  ;  for  whenever  any  constraint  is  necessary  it  should 
be  exerted  in  conjunction  with  some  one,  at  least,  of  these 
other  influences. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  teacher  to  bring  the  pupil's 
attention  under  the  control  of  his  will  as  early  as  possible. 
As  this  object  is  to  be  accomplished  in  connection  with 
the  habit  of  attention,  time  must  be  allowed  for  establish- 
ing it. 

"The  first  efforts  exacted  from  the  child  should  be  gentle; 
one  point  only  should  be  presented  at  a  time,  that  he  may  not  be 
bewildered  by  multiplicity.  The  strain  on  his  attention  should 
not  be  long-continued;  he  should  be  relieved  before  he  is  com- 
pelled to  desist  from  fatigue.  One  success  will  make  a  subse- 
quent one  easier  of  attainment;  failure  will  make  the  nJext  at- 
tempt more  arduous. 

"  All  children  are  not  drawn  alike  to  the  same  subject ;  some 
attend  more  readily  to  one,  some  to  another.  The  teacher  will 
find  it  advantageous  to  avail  himself  of  these  mental  affinities  in 
establishing  the  habit  of  attention  in  his  pupils.  The  child  should 
first  be  appealed  to  on  those  subjects,  or  on  those  aspects  of  a 
subject,  to  which  he  may  incline.  When  he  has  learned  atten- 
tion to  these,  it  will  be  less  difficult  to  gain  it  for  other  subjects. 
The  same  progress  in  this  habit  must  not  be  looked  for  from  all 
pupils,  and  least  of  all  within  a  given  time.  One  who  is  of  slow 
mental  action  may  reach  the  mark  much  in  arrear  of  his  neigh- 
bor, who  is  of  a  more  active  temper  of  mind.  Individual  differ- 
ences must  be  allowed  for  in  the  mental  discipline  of  school."* 

Among  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in  the  cultivation 
of  habits  of  attention  in  a  class  of  pupils  are  slowness  of 
mental  action,  sluggishness  of  temperament,  timidity,  and 
undue  vivacity  or  volatility.  Slowness  of  mental  action 
requires  arousing  by  the  stimulus  of  curiosity.  But  this 
may  not  prove  sufficiently  powerful  for  the  sluggish  tem- 

*  Principles  and  Practice  of  Common  -  School  Education,  by  James  Currie, 
A.M.,  Principal  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Training  College,  Edinburgh. 


ATTENTION.  407 

perament,  which  is  in  danger  of  slumbering  on  through 
all  the  lessons  of  school.  Fortunately,  however,  it  is  very 
rare  to  find  a  child  that  is  sluggish  in  everything ;  and  if 
he  shows  interest  in  even  one  thing  more  than  in  another, 
through  that  one  avenue  his  mind  may  be  reached,  his  sen- 
sibilities awakened,  and  his  attention  aroused  to  activity. 

If  inattention  arise  from  timidity,  encouragement  and 
gentleness  are  the  proper  means  to  be  employed  in  stim- 
ulating the  attention.  The  child  that  is  inattentive  from 
undue  vivacity,  restlessness,  or  volatility  should  receive 
sufficient  individual  attention  to  secure  fixity  of  mind 
upon  one  subject  for  which  he  shows  some  fondness,  by 
directing  his  attention  to  it  again  and  again,  and,  if  pos- 
sible,, by  presenting  a  new  feature  of  the  subject  on  each 
successive  occasion.  The  pupil  should  also  be  encour- 
aged to  perseverance  and  close  application  for  a  specified 
length  of  time,  which,  though  quite  short  at  first,  may  be 
gradually  increased  in  length  as  the  habits  of  attention 
become  stronger. 

The  teacher  with  ready  observation  and  good  judgment 
will  soon  discover  the  leading  mental  qualities  of  his  pu- 
pils, and  for  what  things  their  preferences  are  shown ; 
and  he  will  seize  upon  those  incentives  which  awaken  the 
greatest  activity  of  mind  as  the  links  which  shall  at  length 
become  united  in  fastening  their  attention  upon  other 
subjects.  The  success  of  efforts  for  cultivating  attention 
may  be  read  in  the  pupil's  countenance,  and  this  must  be 
the  index  to  guide  the  teacher  in  his  labors. 


408  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


IMAGINATION. 

AMONG  the  different  phenomena  of  the  mind's  activity 
we  observe  that  it  has  the  power  of  taking  the  elements 
of  thought,  which  have  been  gathered  by  the  conceptive 
faculty — i.  <?.,  the  concepts,  or  simple  ideas — and  recombin- 
ing  them  into  new  images;  also  of  separating  or  individ- 
ualizing ideas  of  objects,  already  in  its  possession,  into 
their  distinctive  peculiarities  of  form,  color,  size,  taste, 
etc.,  so  that  each  of  these  may  form  a  distinct  represen- 
tation of  its  individualized  feature.  These  distinctive 
peculiarities  may  be  readily  recombined  with  analogous 
features  separated  from  other  ideas,  thus  producing  new 
mental  creations. 

The  great  mass  of  our  ideas,  in  the  keeping  of  the 
memory,  are  made  up  of  many  impressions  or  concep- 
tions from  objects ;  hence,  are  complex  in  their  character. 
The  mind  has  the  power,  not  only  of  separating  these 
complex  ideas  into  their  simple  elements,  but  of  recom- 
bining  at  will  parts  of  the  simple  elements  of  many  ideas 
into  new  images  of  the  mind's  own  ideal  creation.  These 
powers  of  simple  analysis  and  synthesis  are  called  im- 
agination. 

It  is  a  law  of  mind  that  the  imagination  can  deal  only 
with  ideas  of  sensible  objects;  with  concepts  derived  from 
something  seen,  or  heard,  or  felt,  or  tasted,  or  smelled.  It 
has  nothing  to  do  with  abstract  ideas  and  truths,  or  ivith 
feelings  wholly  separated  from  sensible  forms.  What- 
ever the  imagination  deals  with  it  represents  in  such  con- 
ditions, and  clothes  in  such  forms  and  colors,  as  come  with- 
in the  cognizance  of  the  senses.  Ideas  derived  from  sen- 


IMAGINATION.  409 

sible  objects,  therefore,  constitute  the  groundwork  of  its 
operations.* 

The  imagination  not  only  manifests  itself  in  several 
forms,  but  in  various  degrees  of  power,  in  different  indi- 
viduals. The  earliest  form  in  which  it  exhibits  itself  is 
in  children  playing  with  their  toys  and  dolls.  The  little 
boy  builds  houses,  castles,  bridges,  and  forts  with  his 
blocks.  A  stick  becomes  his  horse ;  a  bit  of  board,  a  boat 
or  a  carriage.  The  girl  arrays  her  doll  in  all  the  finery 
and  colors  that  her  fancy  can  suggest ;  she  converses  with 
it,  puts  it  asleep,  feeds  it,  and  administers  imaginary  med- 
icines to  relieve  it  of  fancied  pains.  Indeed,  the  simplest 
objects,  by  trifling  changes  of  shape  and  position,  are 
made  to  represent  various  scenes  in  real  life,  by  means  of 
this  faculty,  thus  throwing  a  sunlight  of  joy  over  child- 
hood. The  more  the  imagination  of  the  child  is  brought 
into  healthful  exercise,  the  more  pleasure  he  will  derive 
from  his  plays. 

But  this  active  power  of  the  mind,  which  is  the  source 
of  so  much  pleasure  to  the  child,  may  also  become,  through 
its  abuse,  the  means  of  painful  fears  and  mental  suffering. 
It  is  through  the  excitability  of  this  faculty  that  stories 
of  monsters,  ferocious  animals,  and  phantoms,  which  are 
foolishly  and  cruelly  told  to  children,  fill  their  minds  with 
terrors,  and  people  darkness  with  imaginary  dangers  that 
cause  unhappiness  through  their  whole  lives. 

In  childhood  imagination  exhibits  most  completely  its 
objective  form,  and  the  ideal  creations  are  commonly 
associated  with  objects  that  are  present,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  numerous  little  inventions  of  children ;  while  in 
adults  its  operations  are  carried  on  chiefly  with  concepts 
and  words,  and  it  is  manifested  in  the  beautiful  thoughts 
and  ideal  creations  of  the  orator,  the  poet,  and  the  artist ; 


*  Haven's  Mental  Philosophy. 
18 


410  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

while  in  its  higher  or  philosophic  forms  it  aids  in  classify- 
ing facts,  and  also  deals  with  supposition,  theory,  and  in- 
vention. It  is  exercised  not  only  in  the  discoveries  of 
science,  but  in  the  plans  and  projects  of  every-day  life. 
In  the  process  of  reasoning  imagination  goes  beyond  the 
known,  and  forms  conceptions  of  something  in  the  un- 
known, to  which  reason  extends  its  powers  of  rigid  ex- 
amination. 

Memory  is  the  mind's  mirror,  reflecting  in  its  proper 
shape  and  color  whatever  has  been  before  it.  Imagina- 
tion is  the  mind's  kaleidoscope ;  it  reflects  what  has  been 
before  it  in  a  great  variety  of  new  forms  and  combina- 
tions. 

Not  only  is  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination  almost 
totally  neglected  in  the  usual  processes  of  education,  but 
the  power  and  facility  which  it  gives  the  teacher,  when 
properly  used  in  imparting  instruction,  is  singularly  over- 
looked. Indeed,  many  consider  this  faculty  as  one  which 
chiefly  acts  in  the  realms  of  fancy  and  fiction,  and  there- 
fore regard  it  with  suspicion.  Such  persons  sometimes 
remark  that  "  our  children  had  better  be  occupied  with 
something  useful,  instead  of  building  air-castles."  Pray, 
what  is  that  which  is  useful  to  children  ?  Activity,  hab- 
its of  attention,  a  love  of  knowledge,  a  mind  stored  with 
rich  and  sunny  images  which  shall  flit  across  it  in  after 
years,  with  all  their  pleasant  associations.  All  these  things 
are  useful  to  children,  and  the  province  of  a  cultivated 
imagination  is  to  aid  in  attaining  them. 

If  we  do  not  cultivate  the  imagination  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  child  may  delight  itself  in  forming  natural 
combinations  and  useful  mental  creations,  the  mind  will 
run  riot  in  folly  and  idle  musings  on  scenes  which  can 
never  be  realized, 

A  story  is  related  of  Palonius,  the  celebrated  Athenian 
painter,  which  illustrates  the  power  of  imagination.  It  is 


IMAGINATION.  411 

said  that  Palonius  once  portrayed  so  vividly  a  group  of 
sea-sick  persons  in  the  painting  called  the  "Sea-sick 
Family,"  that  landsmen  could  not  look  at  it  without  ex- 
periencing nausea. 

Culture  of  Imagination. — That  language  and  pictorial 
illustrations  are  the  two  most  available  instruments  in 
the  culture  of  imagination  may  be  known  from  the  fact 
that  children  so  readily  become  deeply  interested  in  both. 
When  language  is  employed  in  descriptions  of  absent  ob- 
jects and  scenes  so  as  to  form  word-pictures,  it  becomes 
a  most  attractive  mo.de  of  instruction,  because  it  furnishes 
opportunities  for  a  lively  exercise  of  the  children's  imag- 
inations. 

Simple  lessons  in  geography  afford  excellent  facilities 
for  the  use  of  language  in  the  cultivation  of  this  faculty, 
through  descriptions  of  productions,  occupations,  climate, 
scenery,  and  animals  of  different  countries.  Children  like 
to  be  transported  in  imagination  to  the  cold  scenes  of  the 
polar  regions,  or  to  the  land  of  gorgeous  flowers  and  lux- 
uriant fruits,  and  to  have  thus  pictured  to  them  the  occu- 
pations, manners,  and  costumes  of  the  inhabitants  of  those 
foreign  countries.  And  when  these  objects  are  associated 
with  the  countries  to  which  they  belong,  the  lesson  be- 
comes not  only  more  interesting,  but  the  instruction  more 
vivid  and  lasting,  because  the  associations  will  be  such 
that  it  may  be  readily  recalled.  Biography  and  history 
furnish  materials  for  similar  exercises. 

"  The  pleasure  which  young  children  derive  from  a  narration 
of  the  simplest  history  is  due  to  the  liveliness  of  the  pictures  in 
their  minds.  The  images  which  are  conjured  up  within  them 
are,  perhaps,  more  brilliant  and  highly-wrought  than  real  objects 
would  be.  There  is  no  need  of  putting  your  invention  to  the 
rack  in  order  to  divert  them.  Take  a  child  for  the  principal  per- 
sonage; join  to  it  a  cat,  a  dog,  or  horse  —  any  combination,  in 


412  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

short,  that  makes  an  image ;  then  relate  your  story  with  anima- 
tion, and  your  infant  auditor  will  so  eagerly  listen  that  the  in- 
terest you  excite  will  amount  to  a  passion.  Every  time  he  meets 
you  he  will  make  you  repeat  your  narrative.  But  beware  of 
changing  anything;  for  he  wishes  to  see  the  same  scene  again, 
and  the  least  circumstance  omitted  or  added  dissipates  the  illu- 
sion which  pleased  him."* 

In  the  use  of  word-pictures  in  the  processes  of  instruc- 
tion the  teacher  should  first  present  to  the  pupil  a  graph- 
ic outline  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  scene,  or 
object,  before  giving  the  minute  characteristics.  If  the 
details  be  presented  first,  the  mind  is  apt  to  become  con- 
fused in  the  arrangement  of  these  into  the  picture  as  a 
whole. 

In  illustration  of  one  method  of  using  word-pictures, 
let  us  suppose  a  person  about  to  read  the  first  twenty- 
three  verses  of  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Matthew.  He 
might  introduce  the  reading  by  saying : 

"  At  the  time  when  Jesus  spake  the  words  which  I  am 
about  to  read,  he  sat  in  a  boat  by  the  shore  of  the  beau- 
tiful lake  of  Galilee,  with  its  beach  of  fine  white  sand, 
and  its  cool  and  transparent  water.  On  the  narrow,  fer- 
tile plain  which  rose  gently  above  the  lake  were  unfenced 
yet  cultivated  fields,  across  which  lay  foot-paths  and  the 
harder  beaten  road.  Beyond  were  the  hills  lifting  up 
their  vine-clad  sides,  whose  tops  were  crowned  with  olive- 
gardens,  orange  -  groves,  and  citron  and  date  trees.  As 
Jesus  sat  in  the  boat,  so  near  the  shore  that  he  could 
address  the  multitude  standing  there,  he  could  also  look 
upon  the  beautiful  scene  beyond,  and  he  may  have  beheld 
a  farmer  sowing  his  seed  on  the  newly-furrowed  ground. 
Now  listen  to  what  Jesus  said  on  that  occasion : 

1  i  Behold,  a  sower  went  forth  to  sow ;  and  when  he  sowed, 
*  Progressive  Education,  by  Madame  Necker  de  Saussure. 


IMAGINATION.  413 

some  seeds  fell  by  the  way  side,  and  the  fowls  came  and  devour- 
ed them  up:  some  fell  upon  stony  places,  where  they  had  not 
much  earth :  and  forthwith  they  sprung  up,  because  they  had  no 
deepness  of  earth :  and  when  the  sun  was  up,  they  were  scorch- 
ed ;  and  because  they  had  no  root,  they  withered  away.  And 
some  fell  among  thorns ;  and  the  thorns  sprung  up,  and  choked 
them :  but  other  fell  into  good  ground,  and  brought  forth  fruit, 
some  a  hundredfold,  some  sixtyfold,  some  thirtyfold.'  " 

Let  teachers  accustom  themselves  to  drawing  truthful 
word-pictures,  and  the  impressions  made  on  the  minds  of 
their  pupils  will  be  life-long. 

As  a  practical  mode  of  using  pictorial  illustrations  in 
the  culture  of  imagination,  take  some  appropriate  picture 
and  describe  it  while  holding  its  back  toward  the  pupils ; 
then  show  it  to  them,  and  invite  them  to  point  out  all 
the  features  that  were  mentioned  in  the  description.  Af- 
terward request  them  to  point  out  the  prominent  feat- 
ures, and  describe  the  picture  while  looking  at  it.  Sub- 
sequently require  them  to  describe  the  same  picture 
from  memory. 

Playthings  of  the  child's  own  arrangement  or  invention 
afford  him  more  amusement  than  the  most  costly  toys. 
No  better  playthings  can  be  given  to  a  boy  from  two  to 
four  years  of  age  than  a  box  of  inch  cubes,  or  one  of 
brick-shaped  blocks,  each  about  four  inches  long,  two 
wide,  and  one  inch  in  thickness.  With  these  cubes,  or 
the  brick-blocks,  he  can  exercise  his  imagination,  and  ac- 
quire much  useful  skill,  by  arranging  them  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  forms  and  positions  to  represent  his  own  ideal 
creations. 

It  is  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  imagination,  chiefly, 
which  causes  children  to  be  so  fond  of  playing  with  wa- 
ter, mud,  or  sand,  because  with  these  substances  they  can 
construct  representations  of  such  objects  as  are  used  by 
men  and  women  in  the  avocations  of  life. 


MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"  The  entire  existence  of  little  children  is  dramatic.  Their  life 
is  a  pleasing  dream,  prolonged  and  supported  by  design.  Inces- 
santly inventing,  adorning,  and  acting  scenes,  their  days  pass  away 
in  fiction  ;  and,  but  for  their  puerility,  they  would  be  poets.  In 
truth,  all  that  poets  have  sung,  all  that  mythology  has  consecrated, 
all  that  superstition  has  fancied  of  the  life  which  is  spread  through- 
out Nature's  works,  is  found  in  lively  traits — sometimes  burlesque, 
indeed — in  early  childhood."* 

When  the  imagination  has  become  excited  through 
fears  awakened  by  cruel  suggestions  and  bugbear  sto- 
ries, the  most  careful  management  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  evil.  It  is  of  little  use  to  combat  directly  the 
chimeras  of  the  imagination.  Eeasoning  will  prove  of  lit- 
tle utility  in  removing  these  imaginary  fears ;  for  although 
we  may  succeed  in  convincing  the  child  that  there  is  no 
real  danger,  yet  the  imagination  is  so  strong  that  the  vi- 
sion of  the  supposed  danger  will  still  retain  its  influence. 
Better  plans  for  removing  such  fear  are  to  leave  the  pre- 
dominant thought  to  be  forgotten,  to  expel  the  sensation 
by  a  stronger  one,  to  divert  the  attention,  to  interest  and 
cultivate  the  moral  and  physical  nature.  A  most  direct 
remedy  is  to  substitute,  by  the  presence  of  the  real  object 
in  the  child's  mind,  the  image  of  the  formidable  object 
in  place  of  the  imaginary  creation.  What  we  really  see, 
although  it  be  repulsive  or  disagreeable,  produces  a  tran- 
quillizing effect  upon  the  senses,  and  thus  removes  fears. 
When  this  course  is  expedient,  it  is  very  efficacious ;  but 
it  should  be  pursued  with  judgment. 

Fables,  riddles,  conundrums,  puzzles,  etc.,  furnish  means 
for  exercising  this  faculty.  What  child  does  not  like  to 
listen  to  good  fables  over  and  over  again,  such  as  "The 
Fox  and  the  Grapes,"  "  The  Dog  and  his  Shadow,"  "  The 
Dog  and  the  Manger,"  "The  Shepherd-boy  and  the 
Wolf,"  or  "The  Fox  and  the  Crow?"  Such  fables  and 

*  Progressive  Education,  by  Madame  Neckcr  de  Saussure. 


IMAGINATION.  415 

tales  as  contain  instruction,  and  impart  moral  truths, 
should  be  selected  and  related  to  children  in  whom  we 
desire  to  cultivate  imagination.  This  will  be  found  a 
favorable  mode  of  imparting  to  children  practical  wis- 
dom when  other  means  fail. 

The  exercise  of  this  faculty  in  its  higher  forms  is  intimately 
connected  with  taste,  and  with  that  philosophical  process  of  the 
mind's  operations  which  leads  to  conceptions  of  general  truths, 
and  with  generalizations.  In  the  department  of  taste  imagina- 
tion is  cultivated  by  "  the  study  of  the  ideal  creations  of  others, 
especially  of  those  highly  gifted  minds  which  have  adorned  and 
enriched  their  age  with  productions  of  rarest  value — poetry,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  or  architecture — which  bear  the  stamp  and  seal  of 
immortality.  With  these,  in  whatever  department  of  letters  or 
art — in  poetry,  oratory,  music,  painting,  sculpture,  architecture — 
whatever  is  grand  and  lofty,  and  full  of  inspiration,  whatever  is 
beautiful  and  pleasing,  whatever  is  of  choicest  worth  and  excel- 
lence in  its  own  proper  sphere ;  with  these,  I  repeat,  let  him  be- 
come familiar  who  seeks  to  cultivate  the  faculty  of  the  ideal. 
Every  work  of  the  imagination  appeals  to  the  imagination  of  the 
observer,  and  thus  develops  the  faculty  which  it  calls  into  exer- 
cise. No  one  can  be  familiar  with  the  creations  of  Shakspeare 
and  Milton,  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  of  Raphael  and  Michael 
Angelo,  and  not  catch  something  of  their  inspiration."* 

The  study  of  Nature  in  her  various  moods  of  sublimity, 
grandeur,  and  beauty,  is  the  most  successful  mode  of 
developing  the  highest  powers  of  this  faculty.  The  sci- 
ence of  astronomy  furnishes  an  excellent  means  of  exer- 
cising the  imagination  in  a  manner  that  will  strengthen 
the  intellectual  and  moral  powers,  and  prevent  the  devel- 
opment of  those  fictitious  fancies  which,  while  they  can 
never  be  realized,  tend  to  weaken  these  powers,  and  to 
create  a  dislike  for  science  and  the  realities  of  life. 

*  Haven's  Mental  Philosophy. 


416  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 


POWEKS   OF  HUMAN   EEASOK 

COMPARISON. 

"There  is  a  law  of  mind,  operating  from  the  very  earliest  period  of  our 
conscious  being,  by  virtue  of  which  identical  and  similar  residua  blend  to- 
gether, so  that  one  single  mental  image  is  formed  out  of  the  whole."* 

IN  observing  a  number  of  objects  of  the  same  class  we 
at  once  become  conscious  of  general  similarities  which 
run  through  the  whole ;  and  we  also  observe,  at  the  same 
time,  a  great  variety  of  dissimilarities  between  one  indi- 
vidual and  another.  Now,  each  individual  object  leaves 
its  own  special  mental  residuum  in  the  mind,  so  that  we 
unconsciously  accumulate  a  large  number  of  impressions 
which  have  a  family  likeness.  All  these  residua,  so  far 
as  they  resemble  each  other,  blend  together ;  while  the  re- 
maining elements  in  the  residua,  which  are  unlike,  are 
left  free  to  combine  with  any  other  impressions  with 
which  they  may  have  any  special  affinity.  Thus,  in  the 
development  of  concepts  there  is  a  latent  process  of  clas- 
sification always  going  on. 

In  observing  the  operations  of  this  law  it  is  found  that, 
in  proportion  to  the  greater  similarity  of  the  objects, 
the  tendency  in  the  corresponding  residua  to  blend  to- 
gether will  be  greater.  It  is  because  of  the  existence  of 
this  mental  law  that  we  find  it  so  difficult  to  count  any 
number  of  precisely  similar  objects,  as  a  flock  of  sheep,  a 
number  of  marbles,  or  a  row  of  fence-pickets.  The  per- 
ception of  each  individual  thing  is  clear  enough,  but  the 

*  Morell's  Mental  Philosophy. 


POWERS   OF  HUMAN  REASON.  417 

residuum  it  leaves  in  the  mind  so  instantly  blends  with 
the  residuum  of  the  others  that  we  cannot  keep  them 
apart ;  hence  confusion  in  our  reckoning  is  the  result. 

Now,  not  only  do  like  residua  blend  together  in  the 
formation  of  concepts,  or  simple  ideas,  but  simple  ideas 
also  combine  into  generalized  ideas,  as  has  already  been 
described  in  treating  of  the  formation  of  ideas.* 

In  these  earliest  processes  of  the  mind's  operations  we 
observe  the  development  of  its  recognition  of  likeness  and 
unliJceness  of  things,  and  the  law  by  which  classification 
and  generalization  exist.  From  the  continued  exercise 
of  these  processes  of  classification  there  at  length  grows 
up  the  habit  of  a  more  general  comparison  of  objects,  and 
of  ideas,  for  the  discovery  of  their  resemblances  and  dif- 
ferences. Here,  then,  we  see  the  mode  of  development, 
and  the  nature  of  that  mental  operation  which  is  com- 
monly known  as  Comparison.  In  its  operations  during 
infancy,  comparison  considers  the  resemblances  of  only  two 
objects,  both  of  which  are  present;  subsequently  it  consid- 
ers the  present  with  the  remembered  absent.  It  is  the 
child's  first  step  toward  judgment,  and  forms  a  part  of 
the  process  of  reasoning.  Comparison  deals  with  two 
opposite  qualities  —  resemblance  and  difference.  The 
mind  first  takes  cognizance  of  resemblances,  then  of  dif- 
ferences; therefore  in  the  processes  of  early  education 
this  order  should  be  observed. 

Culture  of  Comparison. — We  have  already  seen  that 
the  law  of  similarity,  on  which  comparison  is  founded, 
exists  in  the  mind  before  any  educational  processes  can 
be  applied  to  shape  it ;  yet  habits  of  ready  and  accurate 
discrimination  of  resemblances  and  differences  are  to  a 
great  extent  the  result  of  education.  These  habits  of 
comparison  may  be  acquired  by  means  of  appropriate  ex- 

*  See  page  360,  "How  Ideas  are  Formed." 

18* 


418  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ercises.  In  supplying  the  necessary  means  for  this  pur- 
pose the  familiar  objects  of  nature  should  first  claim  our 
attention,  and  their  physical  parts  and  properties  be  con- 
sidered earlier  than  their  abstract  qualities. 

"  The  child's  earliest  perceptions  being  those  of  color, 
form,  size,  and  motion,  given  him  by  sight,  he  should  be 
led  to  notice  the  resemblance  of  one  object  to  another, 
whole  to  whole,  in  respect  to  these  perceptions."  Thus, 
the  dog  is  set  beside  the  cat,  the  sheep  beside  the  goat, 
the  horse  beside  the  ox,  the  cat  with  the  lion,  the  hen 
with  the  turkey,  the  duck  with  the  goose,  the  apple  with 
the  orange,  the  rose  with  the  pink,  the  grape  with  the 
plum ;  while  comparisons  are  made  in  respect  to  form, 
color,  size,  manner  of  motion,  etc.  The  covering  of  the 
sheep  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  dog,  the  over- 
lapping feathers  of  birds  with  the  shingles  or  tiles  on  a 
roof. 

Subsequently  this  process  of  comparison  may  be  ex- 
tended to  objects  of  which  one  is  absent  and  inaccessible ; 
thus,  it  becomes  the  means  of  enabling  the  imagination 
to  form  conceptions  of  things  beyond  the  range  of  our 
senses.  In  this  manner  the  formation  of  the  claw  of  the 
tiger  may  be  understood  from  comparison  with  that  of 
the  cat;  the  contour  and  characteristics  of  a  wolf  from 
those  of  a  dog ;  and,  by  resemblances  and  differences  com- 
bined, the  beak  and  claws  of  the  hawk  or  eagle  may  be 
conceived  from  those  of  the  hen  or  the  canary ;  the  cover- 
ing of  the  Brazil-nut  from  the  common  walnut.  Indeed, 
the  field  is  boundless,  and  the  subjects  are  numberless, 
for  the  exercise  of  comparison  and  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  through  its  aid. 

"  Somewhat  later,  more  abstruse  conceptions  of  the  qualities 
of  bodies  revealed  by  sight,  and  those  which  touch  makes  known, 
become  the  subjects  of  comparison,  as  when  the  transparency  of 


POWERS  OF  HUMAN  REASON.  419 

glass  suggests  the  transparency  of  the  atmosphere  or  of  water ; 
or  the  porosity  of  a  sponge  is  exhibited  in  different  degrees,  as 
in  sugar  and  wood ;  or  the  elasticity  of  a  steel-spring  is  found  to 
exist  in  india-rubber  and  in  air.  These  resemblances,  being  such 
as  would  never  occur  to  the  child  himself,  require  to  be  verified 
by  observation,  and  the  more  unexpected  they  are  to  him,  the 
more  valuable  are  they  as  a  process  of  education,  because  more 
stimulating  to  the  senses. 

"  Besides  natural  objects,  and  their  parts  and  qualities,  there  is 
another  department  of  the  child's  instruction  very  fertile  in  ma- 
terials for  the  exercise  of  comparison,  viz.,  form.  Thus  the  line, 
singly  and  in  its  various  combinations,  may  be  made  to  figure  in 
his  mind  as  the  pencil,  pen,  cross,  star,  arrow,  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet ;  the  rectilineal  figures,  as  table,  box,  window-frame,  door, 
book,  or  slate ;  the  curved  figures,  as  plate,  hoop,  bell,  egg,  or  cup ; 
and  the  geometrical  solids  which  the  teacher  submits  to  his  ob- 
servation become  common  things  in  his  eyes,  when  exemplified, 
as  orange,  turnip,  beet,  ball,  brick,  pillar,  arch,  turret,  church- 
spire,  or  box. 

"  The  idea  of  likeness  involves  that  of  its  opposite,  unlikeness. 
Comparison  is  equally  cultivated  by  being  directed  to  both. 
Wherever  we  can  institute  comparison  between  objects  of  any 
kind,  we  can  institute  contrast,  and  the  teacher  will  often  find 
contrast  the  more  impressive,  and  the  more  effective  for  carrying 
out  the  educational  maxim — '  Teach  the  unknown  by  the  known."1 
But  to  render  this  maxim  valuable  the  mode  of  procedure  must 
be  the  child's,  and  not  merely  that  of  the  teacher.  It  is  for  the 
teacher  so  to  present  the  objects  of  comparison  that  the  resem- 
blance or  contrast  which  he  aims  at  eliciting  shall  spring  up  in 
the  child's  mind  in  response  to  his  hints,  suggestions,  and  ques- 
tions."* 

"  When  the  child's  perceptive  faculties  have  been  exercised  on 
the  most  apparent  properties  of  things,  and  when  he  has  learned 
to  confine  and  prolong  his  attention,  he  should  be  required  to  ex- 
amine objects  more  minutely,  to  compare  them  under  different 

*  Carrie's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Education. 


420  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

points  of  view,  and  to  state  in  what  particular  two  or  more  re- 
semble or  differ.  These  exercises  would  prove  highly  interesting 
to  young  people,  who  delight  in  discovering  differences  in  simi- 
lar things,  and  resemblances  between  different  things.  He  who 
is  best  able  to  compare  will  know  best  how  to  analyze,  to  ab- 
stract, to  generalize,  to  classify,  to  judge — in  one  word,  to  reason. 

"As  young  persons  collect  facts,  they  must  be  frequently  exer- 
cised in  classifying  them  with  reference  to  their  resemblance  or 
difference.  If  any  number  of  objects  is  considered  with  regard 
to  one  or  several  points  of  resemblance,  the  collection  constitutes 
a  class  named  genus  ;  subdivisions  of  these  into  classes  of  objects 
having  properties  in  common  and  distinct  from  the  rest,  form  as 
many  species;  finally,  when,  on  a  closer  examination,  single  ob- 
jects are  considered  in  reference  to  properties  which  are  peculiar 
to  them,  they  are  denominated  individuals.  The  pupil  should  be 
shown  that  the  terms  genus  and  species  are  relative.  For  exam- 
ple, bird  is  a  genus;  eagle  is  a  species.  Affection  is  a  genus,  while 
filial  love  is  a  species.  The  distinction  of  generic  and  specific 
terms  applies  to  a  very  extensive  range  of  mental  conceptions. 

"  The  complex  operation  of  classifying  things  according  to  their 
points  of  resemblance,  and  of  distinguishing  them  by  their  points 
of  dissimilarity,  is  one  of  the  highest  exercises  of  our  reason  and 
the  most  admirable  effect  of  analysis.  It  will  develop  in  a  child 
the  powers  of  observation,  abstraction,  and  generalization,  and 
will  prepare  him  for  the  study  of  the  natural  and  experimental 
sciences,  by  giving  him  habits  of  inductive  reasoning — a  principle 
on  which  these  sciences  rest.  Comparison  and  classification  are 
the  complements  of  observation,  and  the  groundwork  of  inductive 
philosophy,  and  of  all  scientific  investigation."* 

Analogy. — By  extending  comparison  to  the  consider- 
ation of  resemblances  in  relations  it  assumes  a  form  com- 
monly known  as  analogy.  It  now  involves  four  terms  in 
its  comparisons,  and  its  exercise  belongs  to  a  later  devel- 
opment of  the  mind  than  simple  comparison  of  objects 
and  qualities,  in  which  only  two  terms  are  considered. 

*  Marcel's  Language  and  Mental  Culture. 


POWERS  OF  HUMAN  REASON.  421 

In  analogy  the  relation  of  the  trunk  to  the  tree  is  com- 
pared with  the  relation  of  the  body  to  the  man ;  the  cir- 
culation of  the  sap  in  the  tree,  to  the  circulation  of  blood 
in  the  animal ;  the  sting  of  a  bee  and  the  prickles  of  the 
hedge-hog,  as  a  means  of  defence. 

In  combination  with  language  and  imagination,  compar- 
ison leads  to  the  formation  of  similies,  emblems,  parables, 
proverbs,  and  figurative  terms.  Some  of  these  will  be 
readily  recognized  in  the  "  laughing  brook,"  the  "  blush- 
ing morn,"  the  "whisper  of  the  breeze,"  and  similar 
phrases. 

Judgment. — During  the  exercises  of  comparison  and 
classification  the  mind  is  constantly  forming  decisions  as 
to  the  likeness  and  tmlikeness,  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences of  objects  and  qualities;  and  these  decisions  are 
called  judgments.  They  are  the  simple  results  of  com- 
parison^ and  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  process 
of  classification.  These  simple  judgments,  accumulating 
by  means  of  observation  and  comparison,  combine  to 
make  up  our  certain  and  valuable  knowledge  of  things. 

By  this  exercise  of  considering  various  things  with  ref- 
erence to  each  other  there  is  laid  a  foundation  for  accura- 
cy in  discrimination  and  soundness  of  judgment,  which 
forms  that  character  of  mind  known  as  a  good  under- 
standing. The  power  of  comparison,  distinguishing  and 
judging  between  two  or  more  things,  is  generally  implied 
by  the  term  "  understanding."  To  understand  a  thing 
is  to  know  its  proper  connections  in  nature  and  art,  and 
to  see  it  in  combination  with  everything  else  of  a  cognate 
character.  It  will,  therefore,  readily  be  perceived  that 
accuracy  of  judgment  must  depend  upon  habits  of  correct 
observation.  Here  we  see  again  the  great  importance  of 
thoroughly  training  the  Powers  of  Mental  Acquisition; 
for,  unless  these  be  properly  cultivated,  much  of  the  labor 


422  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

bestowed  upon  the  other  powers  of  the  mind  will  be  in 
vain,  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  attain  accuracy  in  rea- 
soning. 

There  is,  however,  that  higher  form  of  mental  activity, 
which  determines  the  result  of  reasoning,  that  is  called 
judgment.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  final  decis- 
ions of  the  mind,  attained  through  the  process  of  reason- 
ing. The  mental  activity,  known  as  judgment  and  its 
processes,  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  operations 
of  other  mental  powers,  and  their  special  educational  in- 
fluences are  so  inseparable,  that  it  will  not  be  profitable 
to  dwell  longer  on  the  separate  consideration  of  judgment 
in  this  connection. 


REASON.  423 


REASON. 

THE  exercise  of  comparison  and  judgment,  in  the  dis- 
criminating processes  of  classification,  gives  definiteness 
and  exactness  to  the  habits  of  observation,  and  thus  tends 
to  produce  certainty  in  our  knowledge.  But  there  ap- 
pears to  be  a  still  higher  mental  power,  which  enables 
the  mind  to  search  deeply  and  scrutinize  closely  even  the 
obscure  and  uncertain  or  doubtful  in  our  mental  accumu- 
lations, till  everything  is  brought  into  light,  the  false  sep- 
arated from  the  true,  and  our  conscious  knowledge  ren- 
dered positive.  This  highest  mental  power  is  called  rea- 
son. This  power  of  the  mind  differs  from  all  others  in 
its  capacity  for  dealing  with  a  multiplicity  of  objects  and 
ideas  at  once,  and  drawing  general  results  out  of  a  whole. 

Reasoning  is  a  mental  process  by  which  unknown  truths 
are  determined,  or  learned,  by  means  of  those  that  are 
known.  We  see  some  things  to  be  true  in  consequence 
of  having  seen  some  other  things  to  be  true.  This  mode 
of  seeing  is  called  reasoning.  If  we  observe  what  the 
mind  does — what  its  successive  acts  are  when  it  sees  a 
thing  to  be  true  because  it  has  previously  seen  another 
thing  to  be  true — we  shall  observe  the  process  of  reason- 
ing.* 

For  an  illustration :  suppose  I  hear  a  piano  in  a  house 
as  I  pass  along  the  street.  I  hear  its  sounds.  I  remem- 
ber that  I  have  heard  similar  sounds,  and  that  they  were 
caused  by  a  piano.  I  infer  immediately  that  there  is  a 
piano  in  the  house.  The  sounds,  and  the  remembrance 

*  Al den's  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy, 


4:24:  MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  similar  sounds  and  their  causes,  are  the  known  truths; 
that  there  is  a  piano  in  the  house  which  I  am  passing  is 
the  unknown  truth  which  I  determine  to  be  true  from 
the  known. 

Again,  suppose  I  observe  dilapidated  walls  and  the 
charred  remains  of  timber.  I  infer  that  a  building  has 
been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  facts  perceived  and  known 
are  the  crumbling  walls  and  charred  remains,  and  the  rec- 
ollection of  the  effects  of  fires  previously  known.  From 
these  facts  I  infer  that  the  present  ruins  were  caused  by 
fire — thus  determining  the  unknown  from  the  known. 

Mathematical  reasoning  is  a  process  by  which  the  mind 
determines  unknown  mathematical  truths  by  means  of 
those  that  are  known.  Mathematical  reasoning  places 
no  reliance  on  testimony;  all  the  terms  are  exactly  de- 
fined and  limited.  There  is  no  possible  ground  of  mis- 
apprehension. Each  truth  is  proved  beyond  all  possible 
question,  or  it  is  not  proved  at  all.  No  possible  room  ex- 
ists for  a  doubt  in  the  final  result,  which  is  as  certain  as 
the  first.  If  the  operation  be  accurate,  the  result  of  a 
problem  requiring  a  million  of  figures  is  as  certain  as 
that  of  one  requiring  but  two. 

Moral  reasoning  deals  with  things  in  the  concrete.  It 
places  reliance  upon  testimony.  Its  proofs  have  respect 
to  matters  and  events  as  they  actually  are  or  have  been. 

To  be  a  good  reasoner  a  person  must  possess  an  accu- 
rate perception  of  the  relations  of  things;  also  a  habit  of 
fixed  and  patient  attention,  and  a  mind  well  stored  with 
knowledge. 

In  exercising  our  reason  we  hold  many  threads  of  ideas, 
and  bring  them  all  into  one  centre,  so  as  to  determine  the 
true  result.  Reason  draws  every  mental  and  bodily  pow- 
er into  its  service  in  directing  the  course  of  human  action. 


REASON.  425 

It  governs  the  motives  and  thoughts  and  actions  of  man, 
and  prompts  him  to  provide  for  his  own  sustenance  and 
happiness. 

Reason  gives  rise  to  law,  government,  jurisprudence, 
and  social  science,  when  applied  to  the  necessities  and 
wants  of  society,  in  determining  and  adjusting  the  rela- 
tions of  property  and  the  actions  of  men  in  reference  to 
each  other.  In  science  we  see  the  human  reason  in  its 
more  mature  form  investigating  nature,  prying  into  its 
elements,  interpreting  its  laws,  and  then  making  all  sub- 
servient to  the  wants  of  mankind. 

"We  are  not  only  surrounded  by  elements  of  nature,  which 
we  adapt  to  our  personal  wants  and  conveniences,  but  by  forms 
of  infinite  beauty,  by  a  universe  which  displays  the  most  elaborate 
care  and  design,  by  a  world,  too,  of  human  action  ;  and  to  these 
objective  facts  and  realities  the  mind  has  respondent  thoughts, 
emotions,  sympathies,  and  desires.  Reason,  then,  has  once  more 
to  resume  its  task,  and  show  us  how  to  adapt  our  life — the  higher 
life  of  the  soul — to  this  environment  of  Divine  beneficence  and 
human  brotherhood.  Morality  and  religion  are  essential  to  the 
full  bloom  of  the  human  mind  and  the  highest  form  of  society ; 
and  it  is  the  reason  which  again  in  this  highest  sense  helps  to 
adjust  the  relations  between  the  actions  and  habits  of  man,  and 
the  moral  universe  in  the  midst  of  which  he  is  placed."* 

The  extent  to  which  reason  is  developed  in  any  given 
case  is  measured  by  the  number  and  the  remoteness  of  the 
relations  which  can  be  grasped  at  one  single  view,  or  the 
number  of  ideas  that  can  be  dealt  with  at  once,  in  deter- 
mining a  result.  The  savage  can  show  great  acuteness 
and  cunning  in  dealing  with  a  few  simple  relations,  but 
beyond  this  capability  he  becomes  completely  baffled. 
The  Indian  can  plan  a  secret  attack  upon  his  enemy ;  but 
the  attempt  to  grasp  the  strategical  relations  of  a  modern 

*  Morell's  Mental  Philosophy. 


426  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

battle  lies  entirely  beyond  his  reach.  Thus  it  is  in  every 
case,  the  remoteness  of  the  means  toward  securing  any 
given  end  is  an  almost  perfect  measure  of  the  power  of 
the  reason  which  grasps  and  applies  them. 

Keason  may  justly  be  called  the  truth-organ*  of  the 
human  mind,  the  guide  and  director  of  human  activity. 
Truth  is  but  a  just  apprehension  of  the  relations  of  things 
in  this  universe  to  which  we  belong.  It  is  by  this  facul- 
ty that  these  relations,  in  all  their  complexity,  can  be 
known  or  apprehended,  and  the  great  law  of  intelligence 
exhibited  in  its  highest  form. 

The  ordinary  investigator  is  satisfied  when  he  can  find 
an  answer  to  the  question,  What  is  itf  He  is  contented 
when  told  that  it  is  so  and  so.  But  it  is  different  with 
the  philosopher.  "When  this  question  is  answered,  he  has 
another  to  put :  How  is  it  so  and  so?  He  is  not  satisfied 
with  knowing  the  what,  he  must  also  know  the  how. 
That  power  of  the  mind  which  furnishes  the  answer  to 
the  question,  How  is  it  f  is  called  reason.  It  is  the  most 
far-ranging  and  the  loftiest  of  all  our  intellectual  powers. 
It  enables  us,  from  visible  effects,  to  go  back  to  the  causes 
of  these  effects,  into  a  distant  past ;  and  from  causes  now 
in  operation  to  anticipate  the  effects  of  these  causes  in  a 
distant  future,  f 

Cultivation  of  Reason. — As  soon  as  the  child  begins 
to  observe  and  to  think,  his  first  steps  toward  reasoning 
are  taken.  But  in  this  early  stage  the  process  of  the 
mind  is  that  of  observing  resemblances,  and  dealing  only 
with  present  objects  and  present  acts.  The  reasoning 
of  children  consists  chiefly  in  making  simple  deductions 
or  inferences  from  palpable  facts,  or  from  the  comparison 
of  two  objects,  one  or  ~both  being  present. 

In  this  concrete  form  reason  is  exercised  by  children 

*  MorelL  t  McCosh's  Typical  Forms. 


REASON.  427 

from  five  to  ten  years  of  age.  They  will  make  their  in- 
ferences from  sounds,  language,  and  actions,  as  well  as 
from  objects.  They  can  readily  perceive  the  resem- 
blances between  two  or  three  objects,  but  their  minds 
can  hardly  grasp  anything  beyond  the  simplest  relations, 
at  this  period.  Hence  care  should  be  taken  by  the  teacher 
not  to  overwhelm  the  young  pupils •,  while  giving  object- 
lessons,  with  numerous  comparisons  and  scientific  classifi- 
cations^ lest  the  terms  or  words  employed  remain  but  lit- 
tle more  than  unmeaning  sounds  to  their  minds.  During 
the  period  preceding  the  age  of  ten  years,  the  exercises 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  child's  mind  must  deal  with 
realities,  objects,  actions,  qualities,  and  simple  relations; 
not  with  the  abstract,  or  those  thoughts  that  require  ma- 
ture judgment  and  the  higher  powers  of  reason  to  com- 
prehend. The  methods  of  teaching  should  employ  chiefly 
the  perceptive  and  observing  powers  of  the  mind. 

Remarks  under  the  head  of  Comparison  will  furnish 
suggestions  for  developing  these  simple  powers  of  reason 
during  childhood. 

Reasoning  in  its  higher  forms  investigates  the  relations 
of  abstract  ideas,  dealing  with  facts  established  by  experi- 
ence and  observation.  The  reflective  faculties  are  chiefly 
active  in  its  operations.  The  period  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen years  of  age  usually  is  the  appropriate  time  for  "be- 
ginning to  train  the  power  of  reason  in  its  higher  forms. 
Then  the  formation  of  habits  of  methodic  thinking  and 
systematic  comparisons  should  be  commenced.  What- 
ever will  add  clearness,  directness,  conciseness,  and  a 
natural  order  to  the  habits  of  thinking  and  speaking,  of 
readily  perceiving  and  inferring  all  the  relations  of  a 
subject,  and  deriving  therefrom  the  proper  conclusions, 
will  strengthen  the  power  of  reasoning.  One  cannot  get 
skill  in  reasoning  by  studying  rules  which  pretend  to 
teach  it. 


428  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"  Men  learn  to  reason  by  reasoning,  and  not  by  the  study  of 
treatises  on  logic.  *  *  *  Logic,  as  tauglit  in  the  schools,  does  not 
profess  to  teach  one  how  to  reason.  It  professes  to  teach  him 
how  to  cast  an  argument  into  a  syllogistic  form,  in  order  that  its 
soundness  or  unsoundness  may  appear  from  the  form  of  the  syl- 
logism, though  the  argument  were  not  understood.  *  *  *  If  rea- 
soning consists  in  perceiving  certain  relations  existing  between 
truths,  the  power  of  cognizing  relations  should  be  exercised  in 
preference  to  the  practice  of  formal  rules. 

"  We  learn  to  reason  by  reasoning,  just  as  we  learn  to  remem- 
ber by  remembering.  Let  the  student  select  the  best  specimens 
of  reasoning  to  be  found  in  the  language.  Let  him  make  those 
specimens  the  subject  of  a  careful  study.  Let  him  note  how 
such  men  as  Marshall  and  Webster  and  other  great  reasoners 
reasoned,  and  let  him  go  and  do  likewise. 

"The  study  of  mathematics  may  form  habits  favorable  to 
moral  reasoning,  but  cannot  make  a  moral  reasoner;  that  is,  can- 
not make  one  skilful  in  reasoning  on  subjects  that  are  not  mathe- 
matical. The  exclusive  devotion  of  the  mind  for  a  long  time 
to  mathematical  reasoning  has  a  tendency  to  unfit  one  for  moral 
reasoning.  The  mind  forms  the  habit  of  demanding  certainty  at 
every  step,  and  acquires  no  skill  in  weighing  probabilities,  and 
evolving  the  truth  from  conflicting  evidences.  To  estimate  prob- 
abilities, and  to  reconcile  apparent  contradictions,  and  to  detect 
tendencies,  are  processes  which  the  reasoner  on  practical  matters 
has  occasion  to  perform  daily;  and  he  who  acquires  skill  in  these 
processes  is  better  fitted  for  practical  life  than  he  who  has  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  calculus."* 

Mathematics  have  too  generally  been  considered  the 
most  important  branch  of  instruction  for  cultivating  the 
reasoning  power  of  the  mind.  On  this  subject  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton  says  that — 

"  Mathematics  are  not  adapted  to  produce  the  effect  so  com- 
monly ascribed  to  them,  since  they  treat  of  nothing  but  quantity; 

*  Alden's  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy. 


REASON.  429 

whereas,  in  the  other  sciences,  and  in  the  affairs  of  life,  we  are  re- 
quired to  deal  with  the  relations  of  facts  in  connection  with  phi- 
losophy, natural  history,  and  language." 

The  following,  from  "  Notes  to  Locke's  Conduct  of  the 
Understanding"  by  Thomas  Fowler,  of  Oxford  Univer- 
sity, is  important  testimony  in  relation  to  the  matter  of 
the  cultivation  of  reason : 

"  To  cultivate  habits  of  precise  reasoning,  and  to  train  the  mind 
to  deal  with  abstract  ideas  and  principles,  no  discipline  can  be 
better  than  that  of  mathematics.  But  a  mind  trained  exclusively 
on  mathematics  would  be  ill-equipped  to  deal  with  the  various 
and  complicated  problems  of  life  and  science.  An  early  training 
in  mathematical  reasoning  should  always  be  supplemented,  as  ed- 
ucation proceeds,  by  forming  a  habit  of  analyzing  and  estimating 
the  value  of  evidence  in  subjects  which  admit  not  only  of  certain, 
but  of  more  or  less  probable,  conclusions,  such  as  language,  law, 
the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  history,  and  the  affairs  of  ordi- 
nary life." 


430  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 


POWEES   OF  MOKAL  ACTION. 

THE  FEELINGS,  SENTIMENTS,  AND  EMOTIONS. 

AMONG  the  numerous  acts  performed  by  the  human 
mind,  of  which  every  one  is  conscious,  are  those  which 
are  known  by  the  terms  per reiving,  remembering,  imagin- 
ing, and  reasoning.  These  operations  of  the  mind  all  be- 
long to  the  intellectual  powers.  There  is  also  another 
class  of  actions  by  the  human  rnind,  equally  apparent  to 
the  consciousness  of  every  one,  which  are  known  as  the 
feelings,  and  include  the  sentiments  of  benevolence,  venera- 
tion, justice,  self-esteem;  also  the  emotions  of  love,  affection, 
hope,  fear,  sorrow,  happiness,  desire,  anger,  etc.  It  is  just 
as  much  the  nature  of  the  human  mind  to  exercise  the 
feelings  as  it  is  to  exercise  the  intellectual  powers. 

The  mind  has  power  to  perceive  right  and  wrong,  love, 
hatred,  desire,  hope,  sorrow,  and  justice,  as  well  as  form, 
number,  size,  weight,  color,  sound,  odors,  and  flavors.  The 
mind's  acts  in  the  former  sphere  are  called  its  moral 
powers;  its  acts  in  the  latter  sphere  are  known  as  its  in- 
tellectual powers.  When  the  mind  attends  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  things  and  truths  in  physical  science,  its  intel- 
lectual powers  are  exercised;  when  it  attends  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  actions  of  men,  perceiving  the  right 
and  wrong  in  them — truth  and  error — its  moral  powers 
are  exercised. 

Conscience  is  the  name  generally  applied  to  the 
mind's  power  of  distinguishing  good  from  evil,  right 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  431 

from  wrong,  in  human  actions.  But  this  idea  is  not  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  as  it  appears  to  give  too  much  of  an 
intellectual  character  to  this  power,  instead  of  placing  it 
as  a  moral  light  that  leads  its  to  see  our  motives  of  moral 
action,  and  tell  us  whether  these  motives  are  right  or 
wrong. 

Conscience  is  to  the  moral  sphere  what  consciousness 
is  to  the  intellectual  sphere.  One  cognizes  truth  in  the 
moral  world,  the  other  truth  in  the  physical  world.  Con- 
science, however,  is  not  so  much  a  distinct  faculty  as  it  is 
the  condition  of  all  the  moral  powers. 

It  is  through  the  exercise  of  the  moral  powers  that 
man  recognizes  his  relation  and  duties  to  God — love,  rev- 
erence, and  obedience — and  accepts  the  Divine  command, 
"  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart, 
and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind,  and  with  all 
thy  strength." 

It  is  through  the  exercise  of  these  powers  that  man 
recognizes  his  relation  and  duties  to  his  neighbor — benev- 
olence, justice,  and  sincerity — and  the  great  principles  for 
moral  action  taught  in  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as 
thyself,"  and  "  Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do 
to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them." 

Language  is  largely  composed  of  words  which  symbol- 
ize ideas  that  belong  to  the  feelings  and  emotions.  It  is 
the  business  of  moral  education  to  strengthen  the  powers 
of  perceiving  truths  and  duties.  Moral  education  is  that 
training  which  leads  to  the  permanent  possession  of  right 
feelings,  and  to  the  performance  of  right  actions. 

TRAINING  THE  MORAL  POWERS. 

"  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,"  is  a  com- 
mand of  supreme  authority.  In  obeying  this,  both  parent 
and  teacher  will  cultivate  the  moral  powers  of  children 
that  come  under  their  instruction.  This  work  should  be 


432  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

commenced  very  early,  because  the  emotions  are  active 
and  tender  in  childhood.  The  first  six  years  embrace  the 
most  critical  and  important  period  in  moral  training;  and 
the  moral  impressions  received  during  the  first  ten  years 
usually  determine  the  future  moral  character.  The  dis- 
position and  character  may  not  be  completely  formed  dur- 
ing this  period,  but  its  inclinations  and  tendencies  will  have 
become  so  strong  that  it  would  require  more  than  four- 
fold the  power  to  change  them  that  it  took  to  form  them. 

Means  of  Training  the  Feelings. — "  The  chief  means  of  train- 
ing the  feelings  consists  in  drawing  them  out  into  action;  we  may 
say,  the  only  means.  A  feeling  apart  from  its  corresponding  ac- 
tivity is  a  mere,  sentiment;  a  thing  of  which  our  neighbors  are 
not  conscious,  which  does  nothing,  and  which  practically  is  noth- 
ing. Activity  is  natural  to  the  child  in  its  moral  character,  just 
as  we  have  seen  it  to  be  in  its  physical  and  mental.  A  child,  in 
the  presence  of  kindness  and  affection,  exhibits  a  sympathy  with 
it,  or  a  return  of  it  by  something  which  it  does.  In  the  presence 
of  pain,  it  tries  its  little  to  relieve  it.  We  must  therefore  provide 
him  with  the  means  of  acting  out  right  feelings ;  and  we  must 
weaken  by  non-activity  those  of  an  opposite  character. 

"If  we  would  cultivate  kindness  in  a  child  let  us  show  kind- 
ness in  our  deeds,  and  he  will  return  kind  deeds ;  if  reverence,  let 
us  habitually  show  the  example  of  reverence,  and  he  will  conform ; 
if  justice,  honesty,  truthfulness,  we  must  arrange  the  little  society 
of  the  child  so  that  in  the  daily  intercourse  he  will  have  opportu- 
nities of  seeing  and  of  exemplifying  them. 

"  If  kindness,  reverence,  justice,  honesty,  and  truthfulness  be 
nerve  acted  before  the  child,  then,  however  much  these  may  be 
spoken  about,  he  will  have  no  sense  of  their  obligation.  It  is 
only  as  acts  that  the  child  can  know  them ;  in  themselves  they 
are  abstract  terms  of  which  he  can  form  no  conception.  So,  if 
we  wish  to  root  out  improper  feelings,  or  to  prevent  their  growth, 
such  as  vanity  or  the  love  of  praise,  rivalry  or  the  love  of  supe- 
riority, we  must  withhold  the  praise  which  ministers  to  these 
feelings.  The  law  of  exercise  is  of  universal  application  in 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  433 

education;  and  it  needs  to  be  specially  insisted  on  in  moral 
training. 

"  In  view  of  this  law  the  school  offers  a  very  wide  field  for 
moral  training.  There  is  great  room  for  activity  of  all  sorts. 
The  children  are  in  constant  contact  with  their  superiors  in  the 
person  of  the  teacher;  with  their  equals  in  the  persons  of  their 
comrades;  they  are  under  direct  superintendence  in  the  school- 
room, and  allowed  greater  freedom  on  the  play-ground.  In  the 
different  occupations  arid  the  separate  interests  of  the  little  socie- 
ty, all  the  feelings  which  relate  to  their  neighbors  have  room  to 
show  themselves;  while  the  feelings  that  relate  to  things — hon- 
esty, order,  cleanliness,  and  diligence — are  also  exercised. 

"  Provided  the  law  of  exercise  be  observed,  provided  the  chil- 
dren be  accustomed  to  associate  immediate  action  with  the  feel- 
ings called  up  by  the  scenes  which  occur  daily  amongst  them- 
selves, the  teacher  may  avail  herself  of  the  power  which  imagina- 
tion gives  her  of  multiplying  indefinitely,  both  in  number  and  in 
character,  these  scenes  of  represented  feeling.  The  moral  use  of 
the  imagination  is  to  enable  us  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  oth- 
ers by  drawing  a  mental  picture  of  their  circumstances.  At  a 
scene  of  virtue  or  heroism  a  child  will  feel  pleasure,  and  manifest 
approval ;  at  a  scene  of  suffering  or  wickedness  he  will  feel  pain, 
and  manifest  disapproval.  His  moral  instruction  goes  on  in 
great  part  through  the  medium  of  this  exercise  of  imagination ; 
for  it  leaves  him  images  of  good  which  recur  to  him,  and  with 
which  he  may  compare  himself.  At  the  same  time  we  must  be- 
ware of  making  this  pass  for  the  whole  of  his  moral  training. 
Moral  action  must  not  be  superseded  by  this. 

"  Moral  training  must  be  viewed  as  a  positive,  not  as  a  negative 
process.  A.  system  of  prohibitions  will  not  inspire  one  good  im- 
pulse. This  manner  of  educating,  though  very  common,  because 
very  easy,  is  in  every  way  deficient.  In  the  first  place,  we  have 
not  the  means  of  repressing  faults  in  the  child  so  easily  as  of  en- 
couraging good  dispositions.  These  prohibitions  are  an  insuffi- 
cient barrier  in  the  hour  of  trial ;  too  often  they  are  swept  away 
at  the  approach  of  evil.  They  can  never  meet  the  exigencies  of 
the  case.  We  may  have  prohibitions  for  many  wrong  actions, 

19 


434:  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

but  we  cannot  for  all.  But  a  positive  principle  is  far-reaching 
in  its  influence.  One  good  disposition  imbibed  will  strangle  ten 
forms  of  vice.  A  child  may  annoy  his  companion  in  many  ways ; 
he  may  strike  him,  or  call  him  names,  or  keep  others  from  asso- 
ciating with  him,  or  tell  tales  of  him,  or  ridicule  him.  The  pos- 
session of  a  controlling  feeling  of  kindness,  of  a  permanent  desire 
of  doing  to  others  as  you  would  have  others  do  to  you,  would 
banish  all  of  these  annoyances.  We  must  exhibit  what  is  right 
for  imitation,  rather  than  what  is  wrong  for  warning.  Vice 
should  be  checked ;  but  it  is  best  done  on  its  actual  occurrence. 
The  frequent  portraying  of  it  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  tone  of  the 
feelings,  often  suggesting  the  consciousness  of  vices  to  which  the 
mind  has  hitherto  been  a  stranger. 

"Before  asking  children  to  show  generosity  we  should  have 
previously  associated  pleasure  in  their  minds  with  this  manner 
of  acting,  in  which  case  their  desires  will  correspond  with  our 
wish.  Great  care  should  be  taken  neither  to  place  nor  leave  temp- 
tations in  the  ivay  of  children,  as  is  sometimes  done  in  the  course 
of  instruction,  by  putting  questions  in  such  a  way  that  the  child 
must  admit  itself  guilty  of  a  fault,  or  of  some  negligence,  or 
utter  an  untruth.  Few  can  withstand  this  kind  of  temptation." 

Truthfulness. — "  Of  the  duties  that  flow  from  our  social  rela- 
tions, truthfulness  claims  to  be  first  mentioned ;  that  sincerity  by 
which  men  know  that  what  we  profess  to  think,  say,  or  do,^is 
what  we  really  think,  say,  or  do.  Truthfulness,  as  a  steady  prin- 
ciple, does  not  seem  to  be  of  spontaneous  growth  in  the  child.  He 
does  not  of  himself  see  the  necessity  of  giving  exact  representa- 
tions of  the  past  and  future  for  their  own  sakes.  Living  in  the 
present,  he  sees  nothing  in  the  facts  which  come  before  him  that 
should  prevent  him  from  coloring  them  after  his  own  fancy. 

"  Truthfulness  is  the  virtue  of  widest  application ;  fortunately, 
it  is  also  that  for  the  cultivation  of  which  there  is  the  most  con- 
stant opportunity,  as  the  child  comes  in  contact  with  his  own 
comrades,  his  teacher,  and  parents.  To  train  a  child  in  habits  of 
truthfulness,  be  truthful  with  him j  say  nothing  that  is  not  liter- 
ally true ;  make  no  exaggerations ;  leave  no  promises  unfulfilled; 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  435 

remember  all  the  expectations  that  you  may  have  led  him  to  en- 
tertain ;  remember  that  even  a  single  instance  of  untruth  in  your- 
self may  unsettle  his  perception  of  the  obligation  of  truthfulness. 
Enforce  the  performance  of  every  promise;  reward  his  confes- 
sions, as  far  as  you  may,  with  forgiveness. 

"  Treat  all  with  confidence  till  you  have  detected  one  deceiving 
you,  and  then  restore  not  that  one  to  your  confidence  till  in  the 
eyes  of  all  of  his  associates  he  has  deserved  it.  Show  the  pain 
and.  surprise  felt  at  a  breach  of  trust.  Treat  all  the  little  ones 
habitually  with  kindness  and  frankness,  and  thus  banish  fear,  the 
parent  of  many  lies.  Lead  them  not  into  temptation.  In  speak- 
ing of  honesty,  do  not  ask  a  child  before  a  class  whether  he  has 
ever  taken  anything  from  his  father  or  mother,  or  brother  or  sis- 
ter, without  their  approval  or  consent.  In  treating  of  kindness,  do 
not  ask  him  to  tell  whether  he  has  always  been  obedient  and  kind 
to  his  mother,  and  agreeable  and  kind  to  his  sister.  Such  ques- 
tions are  snares  for  the  conscience,  and  offer  temptations  to  un- 
truthfulness  that  can  hardly  be  resisted." 

Kindness. — "  Next  to  truthfulness  may  be  mentioned  benevo- 
lence or  kindness ;  that  feeling,  the  opposite  of  selfishness,  which 
leads  us  to  think  of  and  sympathize  with  the  feelings  of  others. 
A  great  deal  of  unkindness  amongst  children  arises  not  so  much 
from  deliberate  intention,  as  from  thoughtlessness.  The  crown- 
ing test  of  kindness  of  feeling  is  the  display  of  self-denial  to 
oblige  our  neighbor. 

"This  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  little  boy  that  came  to 
school  one  day  without  his  lunch ;  and  when  the  rest  were  eating 
theirs  at  play-time,  he  had  none.  The  teacher  divided  her  lunch, 
and  called  one  of  the  pupils  to  deliver  a  part  of  it  to  the  fast- 
ing one,  which  he  did  gladly,  as  it  called  for  no  sacrifice.  He 
felt  satisfaction  at  seeing  the  want  of  his  comrade  relieved.  This 
satisfaction  was  heightened  by  the  pleasure  felt  and  expressed 
by  the  teacher.  Not  long  after,  the  same  pupil  was  observed 
quietly  performing  a  similar  act  of  generosity  to  another  com- 
panion, at  his  own  expense.  The  teacher  saw  the  deed,  and 
highly  approved  of  it.  Had  the  teacher  prematurely  taken  a 


436  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

part  of  the  lunch  from  a  pupil  and  given  it  to  the  one  without, 
he  would  not  have  perceived  the  justice  of  such  a  proceeding,  he 
would  even  have  felt  oppressed ;  and,  so  far  from  a  strong  im- 
pulse to  generous  action  having  been  lodged  in  his  breast,  the 
selfish  principle  would  have  been  stimulated  by  being  thrown  on 
the  defensive.  Where  kindness  is,  a  number  of  common  school- 
faults  are  banished,  such  as  rudeness  of  manner,  calling  names, 
and  the  like." 

Honesty. — "Honesty,  or  a  due  regard  to  what  belongs  to  an- 
other, is  one  of  the  virtues  that  must  be  implanted  in  the  child 
from  without,  as  there  is  no  natural  instinct  which  leads  him  to 
observe  it.  His  desire  of  possessing  is  at  first  indiscriminate  and 
unreasoning,  so  that  it  needs  to  be  regulated  with  much  pru- 
dence. It  is  not  uncommon  to  prevail  upon  a  child  to  restore 
what  is  not  his  own  under  promise  of  receiving  something  else. 
This  is  attempting  to  thrust  out  one  vice  by  means  of  another. 
Neither  will  simple  command  or  force,  though  perhaps  a  legitimate 
means  of  influence  in  the  circumstances,  inspire  the  right  feeling, 
though  it  may  put  the  property  into  the  hands  of  its  owner. 

"Some  children  have  a  stronger  tendency  to  dishonesty  than 
others;  and  this  is  commonly  found  stronger  in  those  who  are 
subjected  to  bad  influences  at  home.  Sometimes  it  seems  almost 
like  an  instinct  in  such  children.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  lead 
children  to  see  the  right  way  is  to  seize  the  moment  for  inculcat- 
ing truthfulness  and  honesty  when  the  child  has  himself  been  the 
sufferer;  not  when  he  has  been  the  aggressor.  Then  he  will  feel 
the  justice  of  your  proceedings,  and  be  in  a  mood  to  fully  assent 
to  them.  He  cannot  say  a  word  in  self-palliation,  should  he  af- 
terward become  the  aggressor. 

"  The  teacher  should  show  a  punctilious  regard  to  the  right 
of  property  himself.  All  things  that  are  found  must  be  scrupu- 
lously returned  to  their  owners,  for  whom  search  should  be  made ; 
so  that  importance  shall  be  seen  to  be  attached  even  to  the  small- 
est thing.  Those  who  deliver  up  property  which  they  find  must 
be  commended ;  those  who  are  detected  in  concealing  it  should 
be  disgraced." 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  437 

Admirable  examples  may  be  witnessed  in  some  of  the 
public  schools  of  New  York  City  for  teaching  children 
to  observe  the  golden  rule  in  the  matter  of  things  found 
by  the  pupils.  It  is  customary  for  the  children  to  take 
whatever  article  is  found,  in  or  about  the  school,  directly 
to  the  principal,  who  advertises  it  before  the  assembled 
school  several  mornings;  then,  if  the  owner  does  not 
claim  it,  the  article  is  publicly  presented  to  the  pupil  who 
found  it.  The  frequent  delivery  of  articles  to  the  right- 
ful owners,  also  of  the  return  of  others  to  the  finder,  have 
furnished  numerous  incidents  of  exceeding  interest  to  the 
children,  and  of  great  satisfaction  to  teachers  and  parents. 
These  practical  moral  lessons  have  a  lasting  influence. 

"  While  right  action  is  the  natural  result  of  right  feeling,  the 
habit  of  action  has,  no  doubt,  a  reflex  influence  on  the  feelings. 
It  is,  on  this  account,  well  to  encourage  in  the  intercourse  of  chil- 
dren acts  which  are  but  bits  of  ceremony,  as  greeting  each  other 
with  'good-morning'  on  meeting,  or  bidding  'good-night'  or 
'good-bye'  on  separating,  and  of  always  thanking  another  for 
even  the  least  favor. 

"  Love  is  the  earliest  emotion  of  which  the  child  is  conscious ; 
love  to  its  parents,  who  supply  its  wants.  This  emotion  should 
be  elevated  by  parents  and  teacher  toward  God,  as  our  heavenly 
Father,  the  common  source  of  all  good  to  both  parents  and  child. 
With  love  there  should  be  inculcated  reverence  for  God.  This 
feeling  may  early  be  inspired  in  children,  or  rather  drawn  out  of 
them,  for  it  is  natural  to  infancy.  'Thou,  God,  seest  me,'  finds 
a  ready  access  to  the  child's  heart.  Reverence  and  love  should 
grow  up  together."* 

Habits. — "The  sentiments  which  we  desire  to  impress  on  the 
child  must  be  cultivated  till  they  pass  into  habits.  In  the  power 
of  habit  lies  the  power  of  education.  By  means  of  habit  alone 

*  For  the  principal  statements  under  the  head  of  "Means  of  Training 
the  Feelings,"  in  the  preceding  pages,  credit  is  due  chiefly  to  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Early  School  Education. 


438  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

we  can  fit  any  one  for  a  sphere  of  life  different  from  that  which 
he  occupies ;  and  by  the  means  of  it  we  can  fit  him  for  any  sub- 
sequent sphere  of  which  the  constitution  of  his  being  renders  him 
capable.  We  can  accustom  him  to  any  direction  of  activity,  and 
mould  his  character  and  temper  to  any  standard.  It  is  in  virtue 
of  two  features  of  this  power  of  habit  that  we  are  entitled  to 
look  to  the  efforts  of  education  as  having  a  rational  certainty  of 
success.  The  one  is  the  indefinitely  great  influence  which  this 
power  may  acquire,  under  the  effectual  agency  of  proper  train- 
ing. Strong  as  the  instincts  of  our  nature  may  be,  we  have  in 
habit  a  weapon  with  which  we  may  overpower  any  one  of  them ; 
and  that  not  by  violence,  but  by  quiet  and  almost  imperceptible 
measures ;  hence  the  saying  that  *  habit  is  second  nature.'  The 
other  is,  that  as  we  are  born,  not  with  formed  habits,  but  only 
with  the  capacity  of  habit,  it  is  left  to  us  to  begin  our  habits  our- 
selves. Character,  therefore,  is  within  the  power  of  those  who 
control  the  years  of  infancy  and  childhood. 

"  The  moral  habits  which  education  should  foster  are  habits  of 
right  action.  There  is  no  test  of  virtue  except  its  exhibition  in 
action  ;  we  cannot  otherwise  be  certain  of  its  existence.  A  right 
feeling  should  have  its  issue  in  a  corresponding  action ;  but  it  de- 
pends altogether  on  education  whether  the  natural  connection  be 
established  between  them.  When  feeling  is  cut  off  from  action 
it  is  a  mere  sentiment.  In  the  general  case  the  feeling  perishes 
in  the  sentiment ;  for  the  oftener  we  speak  of  right,  as  a  matter 
of  sentiment  alone,  the  wider  becomes  the  gap  between  the  feel- 
ing and  the  act,  and  the  weaker  does  the  feeling  become,  as  in  the 
case  of  pity.  There  is  no  education  to  morality  apart  from  the 
practice  of  morality.  Children,  who  are  ready  to  act  in  obedience 
to  every  impulse,  should  therefore  see  enacted  before  them  the 
virtues  they  are  to  learn.  Example  is  vastly  stronger  than  pre- 
cept. The  society  of  which  they  are  members  should  be  so  con- 
stituted and  ruled  as  to  give  them  the  opportunity,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, of  carrying  out  into  action  the  good  feelings  to  which  they 
show  a  tendency.  On  the  other  hand,  just  as  right  feelings  are 
strengthened  by  right  acts,  feelings  of  the  lower  sort  must  be 
weakened  by  removing  all  stimulants  and  opportunities  to  act. 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  439 

"  Habit  is  a  power  which  cannot  be  left  at  our  option  to  be 
called  into  existence  or  not ;  it  is  given  us  to  use  or  abuse,  but 
we  cannot  prevent  its  working.  Children,  with  their  infinitely 
varied  impulses,  and  with  all  their  experience  to  acquire,  have  an 
irresistible  determination  to  activity.  They  cannot  be  subdued 
to  quiescence  and  immobility,  for  we  cannot  suspend  their  natural 
growth,  neither  can  we  exclude  them  from  forming  habits  of 
action.  Whether  we  are  conscious  of  it  or  not,  we  directly 
stimulate  them  to  form  certain  habits,  if  we  have  intercourse 
with  them  at  all ;  for  they  hear  what  we  say,  and  they  see  what 
we  do,  and  their  imitation  follows  inevitably. 

"  The  first  moment  at  which  there  is  capacity  for  action  is  the 
moment  when  we  should  begin  the  cultivation  of  habit ;  the  child 
is  then  eager  and  pliant.  With  advancing  years  the  disposition 
becomes  more  rigid,  the  sense  of  doubt  and  the  anticipation  of 
difficulties  become  stronger,  and  the  whole  force  of  habits  which 
have  been  allowed  to  form  themselves  has  to  be  encountered,  so 
that  the  task  becomes  incalculably  more  arduous.  Early  habits 
are  at  once  the  most  easily  formed  and  the  strongest.  The  hab- 
its which  are  acquired  in  mature  years  never  attain  the  same  sta- 
bility as  those  formed  in  childhood. 

"  The  influence  of  habit  invests  single  actions  with  an  impor- 
tance far  beyond  what  at  first  seems  due  to  them.  If  we  were  at 
liberty  to  view  actions  by  themselves,  out  of  connection  with  the 
past  and  the  future,  many  which  require  the  gravest  remonstrance 
would  appear  trifling  and  unworthy  of  serious  notice.  But  the 
tendency  to  repetition  is  so  strong,  and  in  many  circumstances 
so  overpowering,  that  all  who  are  charged  with  the  education  of 
youth  fail  in  their  duty,  unless  they  are  extremely  vigilant  in  ob- 
serving even  the  smallest  exhibitions  of  moral  activity.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  lie  in  jest,  the  thoughtless  waste  of  some  little  thing 
which  seems  of  no  further  use,  the  unpunctuality  of  a  minute, 
always  demand  attention,  lest  they  become  the  threshold  over 
which  the  child  may  pass  to  confirmed  habits  of  untruthfulness, 
prodigality,  or  irregularity. 

"  The  small  and  almost  unobserved  act  of  sympathy  toward  a 
neighbor  or  playmate,  attention  in  removing  a  spot  or  other  in- 


4:40  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

jury  from  the  dress  or  property  of  another,  and  the  great  care 
taken  to  be  exact  in  punctuality,  deserve  a  commendatory  notice, 
for  these  may  possibly  be  the  turning-points  in  the  child's  char- 
acter for  benevolence,  frugality,  or  regularity.  We  can  never  tell 
the  effects  of  single  actions ;  it  is  only  prudent,  therefore,  to 
treat  them  as  important.  Everything  should  be  encouraged  of 
whose  salutary  tendency  \ve  are  convinced;  nothing  should  be 
permitted  of  whose  evil  tendency  we  have  the  slightest  suspicion. 

"  We  are  not  to  expect  great  results  in  education  in  a  short 
time ;  sudden  leaps  in  character  arc  not  according  to  the  law  of 
our  constitution,  and  are  therefore  to  be  suspected.  Again,  since 
the  implanting  of  any  habit  is  so  great  a  work,  we  should  not 
attempt  to  instil  too  many  habits  at  once.  If  we  have  several 
in  view  to  inculcate,  let  us  first  select  one  to  establish  the  power 
of  habit  in  general ;  when  we  have  succeeded  with  that,  we  shall 
have  given  to  the  child  a  degree  of  self-control  which  will  greatly 
facilitate  his  acquisition  of  the  others.  Again,  there  is  but  one 
way  of  correcting  any  bad  habit  which  the  child  may  have  ac- 
quired, or  of  undoing  any  wrong  association  he  may  have  formed. 
As  it  has  not  been  formed  in  a  day,  so  it  is  not  to  be  overthrown 
in  a  day. 

"  But  implanting  of  habits  alone  does  not  constitute  training 
to  morality.  Habit,  without  intelligence  and  conscious  motive, 
is  the  characteristic,  not  of  a  rational  being,  but  of  a  machine. 
Acts  performed  under  its  influence  have  no  moral  character, 
whether  their  results  are  in  accordance  with  morality  or  not. 
A  habit  of  seeming  morality  cannot  be  permanent  and  sufficient 
as  a  moral  power.  The  routine  conduct  to  which  it  leads  may 
go  on  for  a  while,  as  long  as  the  child  is  kept  out  of  circumstances 
which  might  interfere  with  his  obedience  to  it;  but  it  will  never 
stand  against  the  rush  of  personal  prejudices  and  interests  when 
these  clamor  for  a  hearing.  There  is  wanted  intelligence  to  give 
such  acts  a  moral  character  that  will  remain  secure  against  all 
opposing  tendencies.  Intelligence  must  be  at  hand  to  prevent 
'good  intentions'  from  leading  us  astray."* 

*  Extracts  from  Principles  and  Practice  of  Common  School  Education,  by 
James  Currie,  A.M.,  Principal  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Training  College. 


POWERS  OF  MORAL  ACTION.  441 

Means  for  Moral  Culture. — Experience  has  shown 
that  the  true  means  for  moral  culture  are  the  same  in 
character  as  those  for  physical  and  intellectual  culture, 
namely,  exercise.  But  this  exercise,  to  produce  the  desired 
results,  and  become  of  permanent  benefit,  must  be  had  in 
conformity  to  correct  principles,  and  be  continued  until 
habits  are  formed. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  one  habit  should  not  be 
established  as  easily  as  another.  During  childhood  the 
season,  the  soil,  the  seed,  and  the  implements  are  all  in 
our  hands,  and  we  may  choose  what  we  will  plant.  Let, 
then,  the  companions,  the  precepts  and  examples,  and  all 
the  surrounding  influences,  be  such  as  shall  furnish  abun- 
dant exercise  in  truthfulness,  justice,  kindness,  respectful 
obedience  to  parents,  reverence  and  love  for  God,  during 
the  season  of  childhood,  and  habits  of  right  feeling  and 
correct  action  will  be  fixed  that  will  gladden  the  hearts  of 
parents,  teachers,  and  friends  with  joyful  anticipations. 

Yirtue  can  influence,  as  well  as  vice  infect ;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  example  in  the  practice  of  virtue  is  tenfold 
more  powerful  than  good  precepts  alone.  Therefore  to 
teach  truthfulness,  honesty,  kindness,  or  any  other  virtue 
successfully,  the  children  must  see  these  qualities  practised 
in  the  daily  conduct  of  those  around  them.  The  maxim 
that  "  like  begets  like "  is  nowhere  so  fully  exemplified 
as  it  is  in  our  moral  natures.  The  exhibition  of  love, 
kindness,  gentleness,  benevolence,  sincerity,  and  truth  be- 
gets like  virtues  in  others.  Children  Jcnow  l)ut  little  of 
virtue  in  the  abstract;  they  comprehend  it  as  it  is  em- 
bodied  in  the  actions  of  those  around  them.  Children 
who  have  never  been  deceived  look  upon  promises  as 
deeds,  and  a  thread  may  lead  them.  Deceive  them  but 
once,  and  chains  may  be  too  weak  to  confine  them. 

"  Thou,  God,  seest  me,"  if  properly  remembered,  will 
impart  strength  and  activitv  to  the  conscience,  and  aid 

19* 


442  MANUAL  OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

in  establishing  habits  of  truthfulness,  justice,  purity  of 
thought,  humility,  and  kindness. 

"  Our  Father  who  art  in  heaven "  may  be  made  the 
guiding  sentiment  in  cultivating  love,  veneration,  obedi- 
ence, and  hope. 

"  All  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do 
to  yon,  do  ye  even  so  to  them,"  is  an  injunction  broad 
enough  to  furnish  ample  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of 
patience,  kindness,  and  all  the  virtues  which  should  gov- 
ern our  intercourse  with  each  other. 

Occasions  for  developing  the  moral  natures  of  children, 
and  means  for  exercises  appropriate  to  this  end,  may  be 
found  in  the  occurrences  of  their  daily  lives.  The  famil- 
iar incidents  so  common  to  children  furnish  opportuni- 
ties of  the  greatest  value  for  their  moral  culture.  Words 
alone  cannot  develop  the  physical  powers,  nor  strengthen 
the  intellectual  faculties ;  neither  will  they  produce  mor- 
al character,  nor  develop  those  habits  and  virtues  which 
contribute  so  largely  to  the  happiness  of  ourselves  and 
those  around  us.  Moral  character  does  not  consist  in 
words  orprofessions,  but  in  actions. 


POWER  OF  WILLING.  443 


POWER   OF  WILLING.  * 

THE    WILL. 

"What  the  "Will  is. — The  will  is  a  power  of  the  mind 
which  is  manifested  through  the  acts  of  the  mind.  Eve- 
ry choice  and  every  rejection  is  a  manifestation  of  the 
will.  The  will  is  the  power  of  the  mind  to  direct  its  own 
actions.  It  is  mind  acting  upon  the  powers  of  mind. 
It  is  a  motive-force  of  the  mind.  Its  seat  appears  to  be 
with  the  moral  powers,  but  its  influence  extends  over 
the  intellectual  powers  also.  Its  immediate  incentives  to 
action  are  the  desires. 

A  Desire  is  an  inclination  of  the  mind  for  some  object, 
or  to  do  some  act.  It  is  a  simple  feeling  which  cannot 
be  analyzed,  although  it  is  clearly  known  to  our  con- 
sciousness. 

Willing  cannot  be  defined ;  but  that  which  takes  place 
in  the  mind,  immediately  in  connection  with  the  act  of 
willing,  and  within  the  range  of  our  consciousness,  may 
be  described.  First,  the  mind  experiences,  feels,  or  is  in- 
fluenced by  a  desire  for  some  object,  or  to  do  some  act, 
or  to  exercise  some  of  its  powers.  Then  the  mind 
chooses,  or  decides,  how  it  will  act  in  relation  to  that 
desire.  This  constitutes  the  process  of  willing. 

When  memory  is  spoken  of  as  a  faculty  or  power  of 
the  mind,  it  is  readily  understood  what  is  meant,  for  ev- 
ery one  is  conscious  of  the  acts  of  memory.  With  equal 
propriety  may  the  will  be  spoken  of  as  a  faculty  or  power 


444  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of  the  mind,  yet  what  is  meant  by  will  may  not  be  under- 
stood readily  by  every  one,  for  its  acts  are  not  so  clearly 
conscious  to  the  minds  of  all  as  are  those  of  memory. 
The  powers  of  memory  and  will  differ  in  their  modes 
and  spheres  of  manifesting  themselves  to  our  conscious- 
ness. Memory  is  the  power  of  the  mind  for  remember- 
ing. Will  is  the  power  of  the  mind  for  willing.  Mem- 
ory deals  with  ideas  that  come  from  things  which  are  ex- 
ternal to  the  mind.  Will  deals  with  the  powers  of  the 
mind  itself,  directing  their  acts ;  and  through  them  it 
controls  the  acts  of  the  bodily  organs.  We  are  conscious 
of  directing  and  fixing  the  attention  upon  any  subject  at 
our  pleasure.  That  power  of  the  mind  which  enables  us 
to  do  this  is  the  will.  Care  should  be  taken  to  guard 
against  the  impression  that  the  will  is  some  controlling 
agent  separate  from  the  mind,  instead  of  a  power  of  the 
mind  itself. 

"  A  lad  whose  education  has  been  tolerably  well  conducted, 
whose  trains  of  ideas  have  been  formed  in  accordance  with  the 
realities  of  life,  knows  that  he  must  be  guided  by  knowledge,  and 
that  the  produce  of  his  labor  must  be  husbanded  with  care  and 
enjoyed  with  discretion.  Sensible  of  all  this,  he  wills  to  avail 
himself  of  the  assistance  of  his  instructor  to  acquire  knowledge, 
and  to  form  habits  of  application  and  self -restraint.  And  every 
successful  effort  of  volition  encourages  him  to  persevere  in  the 
same  track. 

"  In  that  complex  state  of  feeling  which  gives  rise  to  volition 
there  is  felt  a  desire  to  do  what  others  are  doing  around  us.  The 
acts  of  others  in  whose  society  we  habitually  live  seem  to  exer- 
cise a  kind  of  contagious  influence  over  our  wills.  We  first  de- 
sire, then  will  to  imitate  them.  This  tendency  is  peculiarly  ob- 
servable among  the  young.  The  old  proverb,  'Evil  communica- 
tion corrupts  good  morals,'  or  its  counterpart,  which  is  much 
to  be  preferred, '  Good  communications  correct  bad  and  confirm 
good  morals,'  seems  to  be  partly  founded  on  this  oft-observed 


POWER  OF  WILLING.  M5 

tendency  to  imitation  which  prevails  among  mankind.  It  may 
be  doubted,  however,  whether  the  potency  of  this  readiness  to 
imitate  has  been  yet  half  acknowledged,  or  half  turned  to  account 
in  the  grand  business  of  education."* 

Influence  of  "Will  on  Character. — "  The  will  is  the  im- 
mediate spring  of  all  our  actions.  The  understanding  may  per- 
ceive what  our  duty  is;  the  feelings  may  present  us  with  motives 
to  do  it;  but  it  is  this  third  power  which  determines  whether 
it  is  to  be  done  or  not.  We  cannot  wonder,  then,  that  in  the 
business  of  life  it  is  commonly  viewed  as  the  most  important 
of  our  faculties,  as  that,  indeed,  which  gives  its  complexion  to  the 
whole  character.  '  Character,'  it  has  been  said, 4  is  a  completely 
fashioned  will.'  "f 

An  aptitude  for  making  a  deliberate  choice,  and  hold- 
ing steadily  to  that  choice,  indicates  strength  of  will. 
Constancy  and  perseverance  indicate  such  strength.  But 
obstinacy,  or  stubbornness  of  temper  without  reason,  do 
not  indicate  this  power.  Obstinacy  and  stubbornness  are 
perverted  actions  of  the  will.  Powers  of  intellect  may 
make  a  man  an  object  of  admiration,  but  without  strength 
of  will  he  can  have  but  little  influence  over  others.  Even 
the  accomplishments  of  education  will  become  little  else 
than  so  much  ornamental  fringe-work  in  life,  without  the 
influence  of  this  power.  A  man's  love  of  right  and  his 
desire  to  benefit  society  may  not  protect  him  from  being 
made  a  dupe,  or  even  being  led  to  commit  wrong  acts,  if 
his  power  of  will  is  wreak. 

Will  gives  decision  of  character.  It  enables  its  posses- 
sor to  achieve  great  results.  It  gives  power  over  others, 
and  thus  makes  a  man  great  in  the  estimation  of  his  fel- 
lows. Men  are  obeyed  or  resisted,  respected  or  despised, 
in  proportion  to  their  power  of  will  and  the  manner  of 
exercising  it. 

*  Outlines  of  the  Formation  of  the  Understanding^  William  Ellis,  London, 
t  Principles  and  Practices  of  Early  School  Education,  by  James  Currie,  A.M. 


446  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Freedom  of  "Will. — It  is  not  intended  here  to  enter 
into  a  discussion  of  this  subject,  about  which  so  much  has 
been  said  and  so  many  volumes  written.  A  few  simple 
statements  concerning  the  freedom  of  will  must  answer 
the  requirements  of  the  present  work.  The  mind  has 
freedom  in  observing,  in  remembering,  in  imagining,  in 
comparing,  and  in  reasoning.  Each  of  these  is  an  act 
of  the  mind.  "Willing  is  an  act  of  the  mind.  The  mind 
is  free  to  observe,  to  remember,  to  imagine,  to  compare, 
and  to  reason  ;  and  it  is  equally  free  to  will.  ~No  material 
restraint  is  laid  upon  it.  No  mental  restraint  is  laid  upon 
it.  The  mind  itself  is  conscious,  when  it  wills,  that  it  ex- 
ercises freedom.  Freedom  of  will,  then,  is  the  mind's 
power  of  willing  freely. 

Training  the  "Will. — We  have  seen  that  some  desire 
always  precedes  the  act  of  willing ;  also  that  man  wills  as 
he  pleases — that  is,  as  he  desires.  He  chooses  or  rejects 
at  pleasure.  Why  does  the  mind,  in  willing,  follow  one 
desire  rather  than  another?  Why  does  the  mind  some- 
times will  to  do  right,  and  at  other  times  to  do  wrong? 
Proper  exercise  increases  strength  of  the  body,  of  the 
mind,  and  of  its  several  powers.  Remembering  imparts 
strength  to  the  memory ;  reasoning  adds  strength  to  the 
reason ;  willing  gives  strength  to  the  will ;  right  willing 
develops  good  character. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  all  who  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  training  the  young  should  aim  to  so  guide 
this  power  of  the  mind  that  it  shall  acquire  habits  of  right 
willing,  and  thereby  attain  that  strength  of  will  which 
gives  steadiness  of  purpose,  and  enables  its  possessor  to 
choose  carefully  and  hold  firmly.  The  proper  training  of 
the  will  requires  the  most  careful  watchfulness  on  the 
part  of  parents  and  teacher.  The  foundation  of  right 
willing  must  be  laid  in  early  childhood. 


POWER  OF  WILLING.  447 

The  two  most  important  defects  to  be  overcome  in 
training  the  will  are  weakness  and  wilfulness.  The  first 
is  seen  in  lack  of  decision,  irresolution,  inconstancy, 
changeableness  of  mind,  lack  of  a  purpose.  The  second 
is  a  vice  arising  from  lack  of  direction  or  from  misdirec- 
tion. Wilfulness  is  a  state  of  temper  in  which  the  will 
acts  in  obedience  to  the  nearest  motive,  without  regard  to 
the  character  of  the  motive.  It  implies  strength  of  will, 
which,  if  rightly  directed,  would  lead  to  a  character  of 
excellence  and  great  influence.  Children  manifesting 
the  first  defect — weakness — need  exercises  to  lead  them 
to  form  habits  of  stronger  wills ;  while  those  exhibiting 
the  second  defect  require  processes  of  training  that  will 
give  them  habits  of  controlling  and  properly  directing 
their  wills. 

"The  causes  of  these  defects  lie  on  tlie  very  surface  of  the 
children's  daily  life.  Let  a  child  be  brought  up  so  that  by  the 
over-watchful  anxiety  of  its  parents  or  guardians  all  its  wants  are 
anticipated,  its  gestures,  and  even  its  looks,  scrutinized  with  the 
view  of  divining  its  desires,  all  situations  in  which  it  would  feel 
the  need  of  doing  something  for  itself  carefully  excluded,  and  it 
will  certainly  follow  that  the  nerves  of  exertion  will  be  cut ;  inde- 
cision and  helplessness  will  exhale  from  the  stagnant  waters ;  it  will 
be  miserable  when  alone,  and  show  only  a  sort  of  insipid,  mean- 
ingless satisfaction  when  it  does  receive  attention.  Such  a  child 
is  destined  to  be  trodden  down  or  pushed  aside  in  the  race  of  life. 

"  Let  a  child  be  placed  in  circumstances  where  its  nature  is  not 
understood  or  sympathized  with,  having  none  to  appreciate  its  mo- 
tives, to  encourage  it  to  exertion,  to  caution  it  when  the  tempter 
leads  it  astray,  or  to  approve  it  when  it  has  triumphed ;  let  a 
harsh,  unfeeling  discipline  drag  it  over  the  wilderness  of  fear, 
anxious  only  for  submission,  and  the  will  will  be  crushed,  the 
power  and  desire  of  activity  will  wither,  while  sullenness,  gloom, 
dark  suspicion,  and  cunning  will  supplant  the  nobler  qualities  of 
openness  and  decision. 


448  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING 

"  Let  a  child  be  brought  up  under  no  fixed  discipline,  its  guar- 
dian not  being  aware  of  the  importance  of  this,  or  not  capable  of 
carrying  it  out,  or,  perhaps,  not  being  much  with  the  child,  thus 
ruling  it  only  at  intervals,  while  at  other  times  it  is  left  to  itself, 
and  the  unsteadiness  and  violent  contrast  to  which  it  is  subjected 
must  unsettle  its  dispositions ;  its  own  whims,  or  the  suggestions 
of  chance,  will  appear  as  binding  on  it  as  the  commands  it  re- 
ceives. Such  a  child  will  grow  up  unsubdued  and  unreasoning. 

"Again,  let  the  activity  of  a  child  be  confined  within  the  nar- 
row groove  of  formality  and  routine ;  let  it  be  surrounded  by 
laws  which  prescribe  for  its  conduct  down  to  the  minutest  trifles; 
let  directions  be  given  whenever  there  is  danger  of  its  erring ;  let 
the  smallest  deviation  from  the  accustomed  path  and  pace  call 
forth  a  senseless  expression  of  affected  wonder  and  dislike,  and 
its  will  will  be  swamped.  When  it  does  right  it  is  never  from 
its  own  choice ;  it  becomes  timid  and  fearful  of  responsibility. 

"  Once  more,  let  us  put  the  case  in  which  the  affections  of  its 
guardians,  exercised  without  prudence,  systematically  allow  the 
child  perfect  freedom  from  restraint,  letting  it  choose  for  itself 
before  it  has  light  to  guide  its  choice,  viewing  its  desires  as  law, 
or,  perhaps,  weakly  purchasing  ease  by  the  gratification  of  them ; 
this  makes  emphatically  the  spoiled  or  wilful  child.  The  will  is 
deliberately  thrown,  bound  hand  and  foot,  among  its  rebellious 
subjects — the  passions — who  strip  it  of  its  dignity,  and  reign  in 
its  place — a  miserable  anarchy.  This  child's  path  is  being  set 
with  thorns.  We  see  such  pictures  in  the  family  circle ;  and  it 
is  certain  that  we  often  see  them  still  more  deeply  colored  in  the 
school. 

"  The  will  acts  in  obedience  to  motives.  The  uneducated  will 
obey  those  which  are  nearest  at  the  time,  though  they  may  be 
the  lowest  of  all  motives — the  animal  propensities.  The  object 
of  moral  education  is  to  inspire  the  higher  motives  as  an  indwelling 
power,  and  to  accustom  the  will  to  that  suspense  which  is  the  first 
step  toward  obeying  them.  By  cultivating  the  moral  feelings  we 
are  at  the  same  time  educating  the  will,  inasmuch  as  we  are  pro- 
viding right  motives  to  influence  it. 

"  Children  will   be  occasionally  rebellious,  from  their  volatil- 


TOWER  OF  WILLING.  449 

ity ;  but  obstinacy  need  not  be  feared,  unless  there  be  great  mis- 
management, for  they  cannot  ultimately  resist ;  and  when  they 
are  made  to  do  a  thing  over  and  over,  they  come  to  think  it 
natural ;  moreover,  it  is  an  instinct  in  them  to  look  up  to  their 
parents  and  guardians.  If  an  obstinate  child  is  introduced  into 
school,  it  is  not  by  any  single  stroke  of  energy  that  he  is  to  be 
subdued :  kindness  and  patience  are  the  only  means  that  will  be 
completely  successful. 

"The  authority  of  the  teacher  should  not  be  founded  on  his 
personal  superiority.  The  selfish  tendency  is  strong  in  child- 
hood, and  will  surely  be  incited  to  resistance ;  and,  if  we  taunt 
a  child  afterward  with  his  submission,  we  only  harden  him  to  dis- 
obey us  at  the  next  opportunity.  The  manifestation  of  strong 
passion,  or  bitterness  of  humor,  tends  to  place  authority  on  this 
insecure  personal  basis;  whereas  calmness  with  firmness  tend  to 
elevate  it  above  all  personal  considerations."* 

"Will  a  Power  in  School  Government. — The  secret 
of  success  in  school  government  lies  in  the  strength  of 
will  possessed  by  the  teacher,  and  the  power  of  leading 
the  pupils  to  desire  and  to  will  to  do  those  things  which 
are  right.  The  means  to  be  employed  by  the  teacher 
for  accomplishing  this  purpose  should  be  of  such  a  char- 
acter as  will  ultimately  lead  the  pupils  to  a  willing  obe- 
dience. The  following  incident  will  illustrate  what 
means  are  appropriate  for  the  attainment  of  this  end : 

A  teacher  was  one  day  collecting  the  caps  from  a  class 
of  young  children,  to  put  them  away  in  the  closet  where 
they  were  usually  kept.  One  little  fellow  kept  his  cap 
back,  and  threw  it  at  the  teacher  as  she  was  going  to  put 
the  others  away.  He  was  quietly  ordered  to  pick  up  his 
cap,  go  to  his  seat  again,  and  then  deliver  it  in  the  right 
way.  He  took  it  from  the  floor  and  again  threw  it,  but 
more  gently  than  before.  Again  he  was  calmly  ordered 
to  pick  it  up  and  deliver  it  properly.  This  time,  feeling 

*  Principles  and  Practice  of  Early  School  Education,  by  James  Currie,  A.M. 


450  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the  power  of  the  teacher's  will  through  the  calmly  spoken 
words  of  firmness,  he  obeyed  the  command.  Without 
exhibiting  any  temper  or  severity,  the  teacher  made  a  few 
remarks  to  the  class  upon  the  importance  of  obedience, 
and  the  pleasure  resulting  from  it.  The  next  time  that 
the  pupils  entered  the  school-room,  and  the  teacher  began 
to  collect  the  caps,  this  boy  was  among  the  first  to  obey ; 
and  so  willing  was  the  obedience  that  he  said  to  his  teach- 
er, "  I  have  done  right  this  time."  Had  anger  or  bitter- 
ness been  exhibited  by  the  teacher  in  this  case,  although 
obedience  might  have  been  forced,  it  would  not  have  pre- 
pared the  way  for  willing  obedience  in  the  future. 

Authority,  to  be  thoroughly  established,  so  that  it  shall 
encompass  the  child  beyond  the  teacher's  personal  pres- 
ence, must  be  founded  on  kindness  and  justice,  and  then 
it  will  command  respect.  Its  reality  will  be  manifested 
in  its  own  dignity  and  power.  Its  propriety  will  not  need 
to  be  made  a  matter  of  demonstration.  Its  own  utterances 
will  be  its  sanction. 

An  authority  which  leans  on  anything  else  than  its  own 
expressions,  that  needs  to  have  its  supremacy  proven,  has 
no  substance.  The  shadowy  images  of  impending  terror, 
the  indefinite  hints  about  something  to  come,  the  loud 
threatenings  by  which  some  seek  to  maintain  their  au- 
thority with  children,  are  really  signs  of  distress — signals 
by  which  those  who  are  conscious  that  they  do  not  possess 
the  authority  which  they  ought  to  have,  proclaim  their 
own  weakness. 

A  proper  training  of  the  will  requires  that  a  just  pro- 
portion should  be  maintained  between  obedience  and 
freedom  throughout  the  entire  period  of  the  educational 
course. 

"  He  that  has  found  a  way  to  keep  up  a  child's  spirit — easy, 
active,  and  free — and  yet  at  the  same  time  to  restrain  him  from 


POWER  OF  WILLING.  451 

many  things  he  has  a  mind  to,  and  to  draw  him  to  things  that 
are  not  easy  to  him — he,  I  say,  that  knows  how  to  reconcile  these 
seeming  contradictions,  has,  in  my  opinion,  got  the  true  secret  of 
education."* 

"  Direct  authority  is  not  a  power  to  be  exercised  indiscrimi- 
nately, but  only  where  it  is  needed.  It  must  supplement  and 
strengthen  motives,  not  supersede  them."f 

The  perfection  of  discipline  lies  in  adapting  obedience 
and  freedom  to  the  several  periods  of  the  child's  devel- 
opment. Infancy  is  the  period  in  which  obedience  should 
be  learned.  Before  the  child  can  choose  what  is  good  for 
him  freedom  is  hurtful.  Obedience  is  the  first  step  in  the 
child' 's  education  to  freedom.  The  sphere  of  the  child's 
freedom  is  very  narrow  at  first,  embracing  his  animal  or 
natural  activity.  It  gradually  widens  as  the  child  acquires 
habits  of  obedience  and  the  ability  to  choose ;  and  when 
he  comes  to  be  conscious  of  responsibility,  he  should  be 
led  to  take  responsibility,  taking  care  that  it  be  a  fair  re- 
sponsibility to  lay  upon  him,  and  one  in  which  the  con- 
sequences of  a  mistake  would  not  be  detrimental  to  his 
own  moral  character,  or  to  the  best  interests  of  his  asso- 
ciates. As  soon  as  good  motives  are  found  to  exist  in 
the  child's  mind,  we  should  allow  him  to  be  stimulated 
to  action  by  them,  while  we  keep  our  authority  in  the 
background. 

"  Whenever  we  can  explain  the  reasons  for  any  of  our  requests 
we  should  attempt  it;  but  whenever  these  cannot  be  fully  ex- 
plained, it  is  better  not  to  give  a  partial  explanation ;  it  will  be 
best  to  say,  steadily, '  You  cannot  understand  this  now ;  you  will 
perhaps  understand  it  some  time  hence.7  Whenever  we  forbid 
children  to  do  such  and  such  things  for  any  particular  reason,  we 
must  take  care  that  the  reason  assigned  is  adequate,  and  that  it 
will  hold  good  in  all  cases."J 

*  Locke.  t  James  Currie. 

\  Practical  Education,  by  Edgeworth. 


452  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

One  of  the  gravest  errors  in  training  the  will,  and  in 
maintaining  good  discipline,  lies  in  an  attempt  to  exact 
the  same  kind  of  obedience,  and  to  allow  the  same  degree 
of  freedom  throughout  all  the  periods  of  the  child's  de- 
velopment. The  temptation  for  the  teacher  to  disregard 
the  change  of  circumstances  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  is 
very  strong,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  easier,  and  with  many 
more  agreeable,  to  supersede  the  will  for  the  time  being 
than  to  train  it  in  habits  of  right  self-action.  To  incul- 
cate an  obedience  that  is  free,  and  self-prompted,  should 
be  the  aim  of  the  instructor.  This  cannot  be  accomplish- 
ed unless  the  child  be  given  room  for  the  judicious  ex- 
ercise of  freedom.  To  l>e  always  expressly  commanding 
what  the  child  may  easily  be  led  to  do  freely  of  his  own 
desire,  will  never  confer  on  him  the  inestimable  blessing 
of  a  strong  character. 

"  Constancy  of  will  is  one  of  the  last  blessings  which  education 
has  to  bestow.  It  is  one  not  to  be  reached  till  trials  of  all  kinds 
Lave  been  endured — till  the  mind  has  power  to  reflect  attentively 
on  purposes  deliberately  formed,  of  which  the  realization  lies  yet 
in  the  remote  future.  It  is  but  a  short  distance  that  the  child, 
with  his  extreme  volatility,  can  advance  toward  this  goal,  yet  he 
may  imbibe  from  the  whole  of  his  school-training,  if  it  be  judi- 
ciously conducted,  an  impression  of  constancy  of  purpose.  He 
may  feel  himself  enveloped  by  a  power  of  which  constant,  steady 
aim  is  the  mark;  and  thus  he  may  receive  a  bent  in  this  direc- 
tion himself  before  he  is  at  all  conscious  of  the  nature  of  the  in- 
fluence at  work  upon  him.  Thus  a  foundation  is  laid  for  con- 
stancy of  purpose  by  the  habit  of  perseverance  which  is  formed, 
and  this  is  a  most  auspicious  starting-point  for  the  will  when  it 
comes  to  a  full  degree  of  self-consciousness."* 

Habits,  to  a  great  extent,  constitute  the  character. 
They  do  not  always  have  the  sanction  of  the  will ;  but, 

*  Principles  of  Education,  by  James  Currie,  A.M. 


POWER  OF  WILLING.  453 

in  effect,  it  is  much  the  same  as  if  they  had.  Habits  be- 
come so  strong  that  it  is  said  they  are  a  second  nature. 
The  formation  of  habits  is  the  formation  of  character,  and 
herein  lies  the  influence  of  education  to  elevate  the  char- 
acter. The  teacher  should  remember  the  use  of  this  pow- 
er of  habit  in  his  work,  and  view  all  the  acts  of  the  child 
in  the  light  of  it. 

"Things  often  seem  trifling  in  themselves  which  are  of  great 
moment  when  viewed  in  this  relation ;  for  what  we  do  once  we 
are  apt  to  do  again,  and  we  find  it  easier  to  do  at  each  repetition. 
The  child  imitates  itself  even  more  readily  than  it  imitates  others. 
Single  acts  may  seem  of  small  consequence,  but  from  their  ten- 
dency to  be  repeated  they  are  important.  We  can  never  estimate 
the  effect  of  single  acts ;  and  this  should  teach  us  to  permit  noth- 
ing in  children  of  the  propriety  of  which  we  have  the  smallest 
doubt.  Not  only  in  moulding  the  child  to  a  certain  line  of  con- 
duct, but  in  withdrawing  him  from  a  wrong  one,  habit  is  the  only 
power  available.  One  bad  habit  can  be  overthrown  only  by  a 
good  one  growing  up  as  a  counter-agent;  which,  like  its  prede- 
cessor, must  be  formed  gradually. 

"  There  is,  doubtless,  one  danger  attending  habit ;  it  may  de- 
generate into  routine,  thus  subverting  freedom.  But  we  cannot 
help  working  by  habit;  we  must  form  bad  habits  if  we  do  not 
form  good  ones.  In  childhood  habit  is  less  mechanical  in  its 
nature  than  at  a  later  period.  The  child's  natural  activity  is  so 
abundant  that  acting,  though  it  be  a  repetition  of  the  same  thing 
again  and  again,  is  always  fresh  to  him ;  so  that  during  the  peri- 
od of  early  childhood  there  is  nothing  in  habit  which  has  a  ten- 
dency to  supersede  will."* 

*  Principles  of  Education,  by  James  Carrie,  A.M. 


QUESTIONS.  455 


QUESTIONS 

PERTAINING  TO  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF 
EDUCATION. 

FOR  THE  EXAMINATION  OP  TEACHERS. 

IN  presenting  a  series  of  questions  for  the  examination  of 
teachers,  and  candidates  for  teaching,  the  aim  has  been  to  give 
several  questions  relating  nearly  to  the  same  points,  on  each 
subject,  in  order  to  furnish  a  suitable  variety  to  meet  the  differ- 
ing conditions,  experience,  and  training  of  teachers,  and  also  to 
enable  those  who  conduct  successive  examinations  on  the  same 
subject  to  vary  the  questions,  and  still  be  able  to  test  the  can- 
didate's knowledge. 

In  using  these  questions  it  will  be  desirable,  frequently,  to 
change  the  phraseology  of  some  of  them,  to  adapt  them  to  oth- 
ers selected  on  the  same  topic.  In  making  a  selection  of  a  few 
questions  from  each  subject,  care  should  be  taken  that  no  two 
questions  shall  cover  exactly  the  same  points;  also  that  the  entire 
selection  shall  be  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  embrace  the  most 
important  points  in  the  topic  under  consideration. 


SCIENCE  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 
METHODS  AND  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

1.  What  is  education  ? 

2.  "What  is  the  science  of  education  ? 

3.  What  is  a  principle  of  education  ? 

4.  What  is  a  method  of  teaching  ? 

5.  What  is  the  art  of  teaching  ? 

6.  What  is  a  system  of  education  ? 


456  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

7.  Describe  a  method  of  teaching — selecting  your  subject. 

8.  State  differences  between  a  method  of  teaching  and  a  principle 

of  education. 

9.  Mention  three  or  more   general  principles  that  govern  good 

methods  of  teaching. 

10.  What  are  the  teacher's  duties  toward  his  pupils? 

11.  What  is  the  work  of  the  pupil  in  obtaining  an  education  ? 

12.  Should  the  pupil  be  chiefly  a  receiver,  or  a  doer,  in  getting  his 

education  ? 

13.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  development  in  teaching  ? 

14.  Define  the  terms  teaching,  training,  learning. 

15.  State  the  difference  between  illustration  and  explanation.    Which 

should  be  most  used  in  primary  schools  ? 

1C.  What  is  rote-teaching?     Can  it  be  made  useful  during  any  part 
of  the  process  of  instruction  ? 

17.  What  is  cramming  f   Why  should  it  not  be  used  in  school  work  ? 

18.  What  should  be  the  first  step  of  the  teacher  toward  instruction, 

on  taking  charge  of  new  pupils  ? 

19.  With  what  must  the  work  of  instruction  commence  in  any  sub- 

ject, to  insure  the  best  results  ? 

20.  What  should  education  accomplish  for  the  pupil  ? 

21.  Mention  three  points  that  a  good  method  of  teaching  should 

possess ;  and  state  the  special  value  of  each. 

22.  Mention  two  or  more  prominent  characteristics  of  children;  and 

state  how  the  instruction  in  a  primary  school  can  be  adapted 
to  those  characteristics. 

23.  How  can  the  natural  activity  of  children  be  utilized  in  the 

methods  of  teaching  ? 

24.  By  what  means  does  the  child  gain  knowledge  of  the  world 

around  him  ? 

25.  What  are  those  organs  called  that  enable  him  to  get  knowledge 

from  external  objects? 

26.  What  powers  of  the  mind  are  chiefly  used  by  the  child  while 

gaining  knowledge  of  things  and  actions  ? 

27.  What  is  the  advantage  of  using  more  than  one  of  the  senses  in 

gaining  knowledge  of  the  same  object  ? 

28.  Which  sense  is  occupied  by  the  pupil  during  oral  instruction  ? 


QUESTIONS.  457 

29.  Which  sense  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  pupil  during  illustrative 

teaching  ? 

30.  What  faculty  of  the  mind  is  most  occupied  in  learning  lessons 

from  books  ? 

31.  What  means  may  the  teacher  rely  upon  to  develop  and  strength- 

en any  power  of  the  mind  ? 

82.  Should  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  be  made  the  chief  aim  in 
the  work  of  teaching  ? 

33.  What  should  be  the  general  character  of  the  school  exercises. 

for  young  pupils,  during  the  first  three  years  in  school  ? 

34.  Mention  common  faults  of  teachers  in  questioning  pupils.     State 

important  characteristics  of  good  questions. 

35.  What  is  the  chief  result  toward  which  the  teacher's  work  should 

tend  ? 

36.  What  particular  results  should  the  teacher  aim  to  secure  in  the 

pupil's  mental  and  moral  training  ? 

37.  Should  the  pupil's  ability  to  commit  lessons  to  memory,  and  re- 

cite them  readily,  be  considered  a  standard  of  his  knowledge 
of  the  subject? 

38.  Mention  the  mental  powers,  or  faculties,  that  arc  chiefly  exercised 

by  children  under  ten  years  of  age. 

39.  State  the  three  periods  of  memory,  and  the  characteristics  of  each. 

40.  Mention  studies  that  are  adapted  to  each  of  the  three  periods  of 

memory. 

41.  What  constitutes  a  prominent  difference  in  the  ability  of  pupils 

to  gain  knowledge  ? 

42.  How  may  this  difference  be  lessened  by  the  teacher's  work  ? 

43.  Do  children  generally  notice  first  the  elements  or  parts  of  an  ob- 

ject, then  observe  the  object  as  a  whole  ?  or  do  they  notice  the 
object  as  a  lohole  first,  and  afterward  observe  its  parts  or  ele- 
ments ? 

44.  What  effect  should  the  proper  answer  to  this  question  have  on 

the  methods  of  teaching  young  children  ? 

45.  Should  the  teacher's  chief  aim  be  the  communication  of  infor- 

mation to  his  pupils  ? 

46.  What  is  the  first  duty  of  the  teacher  when  presenting  a  new 

subject  to  a  class  ? 

20 


458  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

47.  Why  should  the  lessons  for  young  children  be  short,  and  the 

subjects  changed  frequently  ? 

48.  Under  what  conditions  may  repetitions  produce  mental  devel- 

opment, and  aid  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  ? 

49.  Mention  the  principal  powers  of  the  mind,  and  the  office  of  each. 

50.  State  a  general  principle  by  which  any  power  of  the  mind  may 

be  strengthened. 

51.  Which  powers  of  the  mind  are  most  active  during  childhood  ? 

52.  State  the  subjects  of  instruction  which  are  best  adapted  to  those 

faculties  that  are  most  active  in  childhood ;  and  describe  the 
general  plan  of  teaching  which  is  fitted  to  the  condition  of 
young  pupils. 

53.  What  is  necessary  to  fitness  for  teaching? 

54.  State  how  the  teacher  should  proceed  in  the  work  of  education. 

55.  What  part  of  a  subject  should  be  first  taught,  after  the  teacher 

has  ascertained  what  the  pupils  already  know  relating  to  it  ? 

56.  Mention  the  general  heads  under  which  all  human  knowledge 

may  be  included. 

57.  What  exercises  will  tend  to  make  the  sight  more  accurate  in  its 

perceptions  ? 

58.  By  what  means  may  the  sense  of  hearing  be  rendered  more  acute 

in  distinguishing  sounds  ? 

59.  Should  lessons  that  exercise  the  several  senses  and  the  percep- 

tive faculties,  or  those  which  exercise  reason  and  judgment,  be 
chiefly  used  in  primary  schools  ? 

[N.B. — For  information  that  will  supply  answers  to  the  foregoing  questions, 
see  previous  pages  in  this  book.] 


HEADING. 

1.  When  the  young  child  first  attends  school,  what  does  he  know 

that  may  be  used  in  teaching  him  the  first  lessons  in  reading  ? 

2.  Does  he  then  know  anything  concerning  language?     If  so,  what 

is  the  known  to  him,  in  language  ? 

3.  Does  he  know  words  or  sentences  best  ?    How  does  he  know 

them — by  the  ear,  as  sounds,  or  by  the  eye,  as. forms?  What 
is  the  unknown  to  be  taught  ?  Where  and  with  what,  then, 
should  the  teaching  of  language,  or  reading,  begin  ? 


QUESTIONS.  459 

4.  Which  should  be  taught  first — words,  sounds,  or  letters  ? 

5.  "Would  you  use  the  blackboard,  chart,  or  book  first  in  teaching 

reading  to  young  pupils  ?     Why  ? 

C.  Mention  important  steps  to  be  taken  during  the  first  month's 
instruction  in  reading,  without  the  use  of  books. 

7.  State  methods  that  you  would  use  in  teaching  reading  to  begin- 

ners. 

8.  How  would  you  prepare  a  class  of  children  for  t}\Q  first  lesson  in 

a  reading-book  ? 

9.  Mention  the  important  steps,  in  their  order,  to  be  taken  in  teach- 

ing a  class  of  beginners  to  read  from  books. 

10.  State  the  steps  which  should  be  taken  with  a  class  of  young 

pupils,  in  teaching  them  to  read  a  new  lesson  from  the  read- 
ing-book. 

11.  In  beginning  the  use  of  reading-books  in  a  class,  what  are  the 

principal  points  to  be  attended  to  by  the  teacher  ? 

12.  Should  reading  generally  be  taught  by  directing  the  attention 

of  the  pupils  to  the  thoughts  represented  in  the  lesson,  and  to 
a  distinct  and  natural  utterance  of  those  thoughts,  or  chiefly 
by  imitating  the  teacher's  reading  of  the  lesson  ? 

13.  While  teaching  a  new  lesson  should  the  pupils  attend  to  the 

meaning  of  single  words  chiefly,  or  to  groups  of  words  as  used 
in  phrases  ?  Why  ? 

14.  Should  pupils  be  allowed  to  read  words  singly,  or  required  to 

read  them  in  groups  ?    Why  ? 

15.  Should  instruction  in  the  meaning  of  phrases  used  in  the  lesson, 

or  the  definitions  of  words  receive  more  attention  ?     Why  ? 

16.  What  are  the  prominent  characteristics  of  excellent  reading  ? 

17.  Should  instruction  in  reading,  during  school,  be  confined  to  the 

usual  class  reading-books  ? 

18.  Can  reading  in  concert  be  employed  so  that  the  evil  habits  ac- 

quired by  it  shall  not  overcome  all  the  good  results  that  may 
be  attained  by  it  ? 

19.  Write  a  brief  outline  of  a  good  course  of  instruction  for  teaching 

reading — an  elementary  course,  and  an  advanced  course.  State 
the  principal  ends  to  be  attained  in  each  course. 

20.  Mention  three  important  points  in  teaching  reading,  in  their 

order.     State  why  each  point  is  important. 


460  MANUAL   OF  OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 


SPELLING. 

21.  Should  reading  be  taught  by  means  of  and  through  spelling;  or 

spelling  be  taught  by  means  of  and  through  reading? 

22.  Should  the  spelling  of  words  be  taught  before  their  use  and 

meaning  are  understood  ? 

23.  Should  reading  or  spelling  receive  more  attention  in  a  primary 

school  ? 

24.  For  what  purposes  should  spelling  be  taught  ? 

25.  How  can  spelling  be  taught  so  as  to  secure  the  object  of  teach- 

ing it  ? 

PHONETICS. 

26.  What  benefit  do  pupils  derive  from  phonetics  ? 

27.  Mention  the  chief  uses  of  phonetics  in  school. 

28.  What  are   the  uses  of  a  knowledge  of  elementary  sounds  in 

teaching  reading  ? 

29.  How  should  instruction  in  phonetics  be  given  ? 

30.  Indicate  sounds,  and  the  silent  letters  in  the  following  words : 

knife,  what,  school,  though,  cough,  dough,  chin,  box,  sew,  knead,  ex- 
quisite, does,  said,  four,  sure,  was,  they,  word,  thing,  height. 

[N.B. — For  information  relating  to  teaching  reading,  phonetics,  etc.,  see 
Primary  Object  Lessom,  40th  Edition.] 


OBJECT-TEACHING. 

1.  What  is  object-teaching '? 

2.  What  is  an  object  lesson  ? 

3.  What  is  the  design  of  object-teaching? 

4.  State  what  children  first  notice  in  relation  to  objects.     Should 

all  lessons  on  objects  be  begun  in  the  same  manner  ? 

5.  State  some  of  the  uses  of  object  lessons. 

6.  Mention  the  important  steps  in  an  object  lesson. 

7.  Write  a  brief  sketch  of  an  object  lesson,  showing  what  should 

appear  on  the  blackboard  when  the  lesson  is  finished. 

8.  "What  is  the  proper  range  of  object  lessons  ? 


QUESTIONS.  461 

FORM. 
9.  What  would  you  give  as  the  first  lesson  inform? 

10.  Compare  two   of  the  following  solids,  and   state  their  resem- 

blances and  differences — cube,  pyramid,  cone,  cylinder. 

11.  Mention  the  two  most  important  conditions,  relating  to  paral- 

lel lines,  that  pupils   should  notice  in  order  to   understand 
the  term. 

12.  State  the  most  prominent  facts  to  be  observed  as  to  the  shape  of 

pyramids. 

13.  Mention  some  of  the  advantages  which  children  derive  from  les- 

sons on  form. 

14.  What  facts  would  you  teach  young  pupils  relating  to  the  shape 

of  a  cube  ? 

COLOR. 

16.  Mention  important  uses  of  lessons  on  color. 

17.  What  exercises  should  constitute  the  chief  lessons  on  color  ? 

18.  Why  do  not  all  children  distinguish  colors  ? 

19.  What  should  the  teacher  endeavor  to  ascertain  relative  to  color, 

concerning  each  pupil  ?     Why  ? 

20.  How  may  tests  be  made  for  color-blindness  f 

21.  What  do  you  understand  by  harmony  of  colors  ? 

22.  Mention  uses  of  learning  to  distinguish  harmony  in  colors. 

23.  Mention  colors  used  for  signals,  and  what  each  indicates. 

QUALITIES. 

24.  Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  lessons  on  qualities. 

25.  State  the  important  steps  in  a  lesson  on  a  quality. 

26.  How  would  you  proceed  in  teaching  a  lesson  on  elasticity  ? 

27.  Should  lessons  on  single  qualities,  illustrated  by  several  objects, 

or  lessons  on  the  several  qualities  in  the  same  object,  be  given 
first  ?     Why  ? 

28.  How  would  you  illustrate  to  a  class  the  differences  between 

flexible  and  elastic;  compressible  and  malleable  ;  soluble  and  fusi- 
ble? 

29.  Which  are  most  appropriate  for  young  pupils,  lessons  on  differ- 

ent qualities  in  the  same  object,  or  lessons  on  a  single  quality 
•with  various  objects  ? 


462  MANUAL  OF  OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS. 

30.  State  why  lessons  on  animals  are  useful  for  object-teaching. 

31.  Mention  animals  and  their  characteristics  that  may  be  observed 

by  children  during  their  first  year  in  school. 

32.  State  the  kind  of  lessons  on  animals  that  are  appropriate  for  the 

older  pupils  in  a  primary  school. 

33.  Should  such  attention  be  given  to  lessons  on  single  animals  as 

will  prepare  for  subsequent  lessons  on  their  classification? 

34.  Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  lessons  on  plants,  for  young  pupils. 

35.  State  some  of  the  important  features  of  lessons  on  plants,  as  a 

means  of  developing  habits  of  observation. 

36.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  instruction  relative  to  plants 

which  is  suitable  for  primary  pupils  ? 

37.  Write  a  brief  outline  of  a  course  of  instruction  for  object  lessons 

on  one  of  the  following  topics :  form,  color,  qualities,  animals, 
plants,  objects. 

[N.B. — For  information  relating  to  object-teaching,  and  methods  for  teach- 
ing different  topics,  see  previous  pages  in  this  book ;  also  Primary 
Object  Lessons.] 

NUMBER  AND  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  What  should  constitute  the  first  lessons  in  number? 

2.  On  what  must  the  child's  knowledge  of  arithmetic  be  based  ? 

3.  State  the  three  steps  necessary  to  complete  the  process  of  in- 

struction in  each  subject  in  arithmetic. 

4.  State  a  method  for  teaching  pupils  to  add  readily  and  accurate- 

ly, without  counting. 

5.  Give  examples  of  a  good  method  for  teaching  the  following 

rules :  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division. 

6.  How  should  lessons  on  the  tables  of  weights  and  measures  be  in- 

troduced to  a  class  ? 

7.  What  are  the  principal  steps  in  teaching  notation  and  numera- 

tion ? 

8.  In  oral  arithmetic,  what  points  should  be  kept  in  view  in  decid- 

ing what  forms  of  solution  are  best  for  young  children  ? 

9.  Into  how  many  steps,  or  difficulties,  would  you  divide  the  work 

of  teaching  division  ? 


QUESTIONS.  463 

10.  What  should  constitute  the  lessons  in  arithmetic  during  the 

child's  first  year  in  school  ?  What  during  the  second  and 
third  years  ? 

11.  What  general  plans  Would  you  pursue  in  teaching  the  tables  of 

weights  and  measures  ? 

12.  State  the  difficulties  to  be  explained  in  teaching  multiplication. 

13.  Write  a  brief  outline  of  a  good  course  of  instruction  for  teaching 

arithmetic — give  three  or  more  steps  for  the  elementary  course, 
and  three  for  the  advanced  course.  State  the  principal  ends 
to  be  attained  in  each  step  of  the  course. 

[N.B. — See  Primary  Object  Lessons.] 


GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  With  what  should  the  lessons  introductory  to  geography  begin? 

2.  What  should  constitute  the  first  lessons  in  geography  ? 

3.  State  a  general  plan  for  giving  early  lessons  in  geography. 

4.  How  would  you  give  the  child  ideas  of  the  world,  its  shape  and 

size  ? 

5.  What  is  the  natural  starting-place  for  teaching  geography  ? 

6.  What  should  be  the  general  character  of  the  instruction  in  ge- 

ography in  primary  schools  ? 

7.  What  classes  of  facts  do  you  consider  most  useful  for  advanced 

pupils  in  geography  ? 

8.  Write  a  brief  outline  of  a  good  course  of  instruction  for  teaching 

geography — including  the  introductory  steps. 

[N".B. — See  previous  pages  in  this  book.] 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

1.  What  qualities,  in  the  teacher,  are  conducive  to  success  in  school 

government  ? 

2.  What  should  the  teacher  endeavor  first  to  ascertain,  in  relation 

to  his  pupils,  as  necessary  to  success  in  the  management  of  his 
school ? 

3.  By  what  means  should  the  discipline  of  a  school  be  secured  1 


MANUAL   OF   OBJECT-TEACHING. 

4.  How  may  the  processes  of  instruction  be  made  to  aid  in  the  dis- 

cipline of  a  class  ? 

5.  What  means  may  be  used  for  elevating  the  general  character  of 

a  class,  in  respect  to  good  conduct  ? 

G.  How  may  pupils  be  trained  to  habits  of  orderly  behavior,  and 
prompt  and  willing  obedience  ? 

7.  When  is  praise  proper,  as  an  aid  to  school  management  ? 

8.  What  is  the  general  effect  of  scolding,  fault-finding,  and  censure 

upon  pupils  ? 

9.  State  how  encouragement  may  be  made  effective  in  the  manage- 

ment of  pupils. 

10.  What  is  the  effect  of  frequently  telling  children  of  their  faults, 

before  the  class  ? 

11.  Should  the  teacher's  chief  aim,  in  the  discipline  of  his  class,  be 

to  correct  individual  faults,  or  to  overcome  them  by  develop- 
ing the  public  opinion  of  his  class  in  favor  of  the  right,  and 
to  dislike  the  wrong  ? 

12.  Should  the  formation  of  good  habits,  as  to  character  or  the  ac- 

quisition of  knowledge,  constitute  the  chief  aim  in  school  dis- 
cipline ? 

13.  What  constitutes  good  order  in  a  school  ?     State  some  methods 

by  which  it  may  be  maintained. 

14.  State  important  matters  to  be  attended  to  in  the  organization 

of  a  school ;  why  each  matter  is  important ;  also  what  means 
are  adapted  to  secure  the  best  results  in  school  organization. 

15.  What  should  the  teacher  do  when  the  pupils  cease  to  give  prop- 

er attention  to  the  lesson  ? 

16.  Mention  some  of  the  means  that  are  appropriate  for  securing  the 

attention  of  pupils. 

17.  State  general  plans  of  discipline  that  are  successful  in  the  man- 

agement of  school. 

18.  What  means  would  you  employ  for  maintaining  order  in  your 

class  ? 

[N.B. — See  previous  pages  in  this  book.] 


INDEX. 


A. 
Activity,  Love  of  ...........  Page  404 

Allspice  ........................  140 

Analogy  ........................  420 

Animals,  Lessons  on—  first  stage  177 

"  "          "     second  "     181 

"  "          "     third    "      202 

"        Classification  of—  sim- 

ple ...........................  199 

Animals,  Classification  of—  Sci- 
entific ........................  229 

Animals,  Brunches  of  ...........  230 

"        Classes  of  ..........  231-235 

"         Orders  of  ..........  236-239 

Atmosphere  ;  its  properties  .  .331-334 
Attention  ......................  402 

"         Culture  of  ............  403 


B. 


Bat 
Bay 


187 
55 
Birds,  Orders  of  ................  237 

"    Families  of  ..........  243-245 

Blacksmith  .....................  291 

Boundaries,  Exercises  to  develop 
ideas  of.  ......................     44 

"  Boxing  the  Compass  "  ........    41 

Butterfly  .......................  198 

C. 
Calcite  .........................  275 

Camel  ..........................  210 

Candles  ........................  153 

Cape  ...........................     56 

Carpenter  ......................  290 

Cat  .........................  182,  205 

Chalk..  ..  276 


Chemistry;  or,  Elements  of  Sub- 
stances  Page  278 

Cinnamon 143 

City 56 

Classification  of  Animals — Scien- 
tific   229 

Classification  of  Knowledge  gain- 
ed by  the  Senses 374 

Cloves 137 

Coffee 148 

Color  —  Additional   Suggestions 
for  Teaching 93 

Color-blindness 110,  111 

"  "         Tests  for 112 

Colors,  Mixture  of. 97-103 

"             "         "     Illustrative 
Exercises 98 

Colors,  Harmony  in 106, 118 

"       Lessons     in      Harmony 
of 119,  120 

Colors,  Advanced  Lessons  on 117 

"       Effects  on  Complexion..  116 

"  "       by  Contrast 107 

"       Review  of  Lessons  on. . .   10.3 

"       as  Signals 114 

"       as  Emblems 115 

"       Statements     about,    for* 
Teacher 103 

Colors,  Pigments  that  represent 
them 124 

Colors,  Complementary,  How  to 
find 117,118 

Common    Studies,  other   means 
needed  for  Training 27 

Common  Things,  Science  of 331 

Comparison 416 

"  Culture  of 417 

Conception 336 


20* 


466 


INDEX. 


Conscience Page  430 

Cotton 157 

Countries,  How  locations  may  be 

Learned 60 

Cow 209 

Cuckoo 226 

Curiosity 404 

D. 

Desire,  A 443 

Developing  the  Powers  of  Mind  375 

Direction 33 

"          Exercises  to  develop 

ideas  of. 42 

Directions  for  Teachers 349 

Discipline— School 317 

Distance 33 

"        Exercises    to    develop 

ideas  of 42 

Dog 185,208 

Dolomite 275 

Dragon-fly 214 

Duck...  ..  203 


Earth,  Proof  that  it  is  Round  ...  58 
Earth's  Shape,  to  develop  ideas 

of 57 

Earth's  Size,  to  develop  ideas  of  57 
"  Surface,  Representations 

of,  on  Globe  and  Maps 59 

Earth-worm 191 

Education,  Science  of. 341 

"  Principles  of 347 

Educational  Terms — Definitions 

of 343 

Elements  of  Knowledge,  How 

the  Child  obtains 22 

Elements  of  Mental  Activity 359 

"  of  Substances 278 

Elephant 221 

Emotions 430 

F. 

Facts  for  Teachers,  about  Plants.  252 
"  "  "  "  Weight  70 
"  "  "  "  Colors.  103 
"  to  be  remembered 320 


Feeling,  or  Touch Page  371 

Feelings 430 

"        Means  of  Training  the  432 

Feldspar 274 

Flax 158 

Flowers,  Shapes  of. 255 

Form,  Additional   Methods    for 

Elementary  Lessons 77 

Form    Lessons,    Review    Exer- 
cises   81,82 

Form    Lessons,  Advanced    Les- 
sons on 84 

Fruits 170 

G. 

Geography 49 

"          First  Lessons  in  Ele- 
mentary      51 

Geography,  where  to  begin  First 

Lessons 51 

Geography,  how  to  proceed 51 

Ginger 142 

Glass 164 

Globes 59 

Goat 186 

Grains 170 

Granite 274 

Grasshopper 195 

H. 

Habits 437 

Harbor 56 

Harmony  in  Colors 106 

"         "        "      Lessons  in..  120 

Hearing 369 

Hemp 158 

Hen 204 

Hill 52 

Honesty 436 

Horse 220 

How  Nature  Teaches  a  Child. ...  355 

I. 

Imagination 408 

"  Culture  of 411 

India-rubber 163 

Insects,  Orders  of. 239 

Island..,  .     51 


INDEX. 


467 


J. 

Judgment Page  421 

K. 

Kindergarten 17 

Kindness 435 

Kinds  of  Type  used 295 

King-bird 226 

Knowledge  gained  by  the  Senses 
—Classification  of..,  ..374 


Lake. 55 

Land 59 

Language 384 

"         Culture  in  the  Use  of.  386 
"         Means  of  developing..    27 

"         Importance  of 395 

Leather 161 

Leaves,  Shapes  of 252 

Limestone 276 

Lion 206 

Location     of    Countries,    How 
learned GO 

M. 

Mace 142 

Mammals,  Families  of 240-242 

Man's  Nature  and  Powers 364 

Map-drawing  as  a  Means  of  teach- 
ing Geography 62 

Map-drawing,  How  to  commence    63 

Maps 44 

"      Scale  of 47 

Materials  for  Advanced  Lessons 

on  Objects 136 

Mechanical  Powers 337 

Memory 392 

"        Culture  of 396 

"        Three  Periods  of. ...  397-400 

"        Human  and  Brute 395 

Mental  Activity,  Elements  of. ...  359 
"  Acquisition,  Powers  of ..  379 
"  "  Cultivation 

of 379 

Mental  Reproduction,  Powers  of  384 
Methods  of  teaching,  Importance 
of  Attention  to...  .    25 


Metric  Measure Page   74 

Mind,  the 364 

Minerals 273 

"  Prepare  Pupils  to  ob- 
serve them 274 

Mineral-letters 279 

Moral  Action,  Powers  of 430 

"      Culture,  Means  of 441 

"      Powers,  Training  the 431 

"      Training 317 

"      Facts  to  be  Remembered.  320 

Mountain 55 

Mouse 188 

Muscular  Sense 372 

N. 
Natural  History 171 

"  "  Lessons  on  Ani- 
mals—first stage 177 

Natural  History,  Lessons  on  Ani- 
mals— second  stage 181 

Natural  History,  Lessons  on  Ani- 
mals— third  stage 202 

Natural  History,  Notes  for  Les- 
sons in 219 

Nature  Teaches  a  Child,  How ...  355 

Nerves  . .  . .  365 


Nutmeg 141 

Nuts..  .  170 


O. 

Objects,  Properties  of 125 

"       Materials  for  Advanced 

Lessons  on 136 

Object-teaching,  Design  of. 15 

its  Effects 30 

"           "          and  Object  Les- 
sons     21 

Object-teaching,  Range  of 31 

"  Stages  of  ..17, 18, 19 
What  it  implies  16 
What  is  it?....  29 

Observation 380 

Occupations 282 

Lessons  on 285-288 

Organs  of  Sense 367 

Ostrich  ..  ..216 


468 


INDEX. 


p. 

Painter Page  292 

Pepper 139 

Perception 365 

Perceptiveness 365 

"  Cultivating 375 

Physical  Training 297 

"        Exercises 301 

"  Drill  in 312 

"              "          Arm     move- 
ments   301 

Physical  Exercises — Chest  move- 
ments   306 

Physical  Exercises— Hand  move- 
ments   304 

Physical  Exercises — Head  move- 
ments   305 

Physical  Exercises — Knee  move- 
ments    305 

Physical  Exercises — Sets  of  move- 
ments   310 

Physical  Exercises — Trunk  move- 
ments   307 

Physical  Exercises — Teaching  the 
movements 309 

Pig 222 

Place 33 

"     Exercises  to  develop  ideas 


of. 


34 

Plain,  About  a 54 

Plants 247 

"     Annuals 248 

"     Biennials 248 

"     Families  of. 258 

"     Facts  about,  for  Teachers.  252 

"     Family  Relations 250 

"     Habits  of. 249 

"     Hints  for  giving  lessons  on  250 

"     How  they  take  food 247 

"     Kinds  of 248 

"     Lily  Family 258 

"     Perennials 248 

"     Pink  Family 260 

"     Poisonous  Families 264 

"     Poisonous 264 

11     Rose  Family 262 

"     Shapes  of  Flower 255 


Plants,  Shapes  of  Leaves Page  252 

"     Roots 256 

Porcupine 222 

Powers  of  Human  Reason 416 

"  "  Mental  Acquisition  ..  379 
"  u  "  Reproduction  384 
"  "  Mind,  Developing  the  375 

"       "   Moral  Action 430 

Power  of  Willing 443 

Prairie-hen 205 

Principles  of  Education 347 

Printer 293 

Properties  of  Objects 125 

Putty 154 

Q. 

Quail 204 

Quartz 274 

Questions    for    examination  of 
Teachers 455-464 

R. 

Rabbit 189 

Rat 223 

Reason 423 

"       Cultivation  of 426 

"       Powers  of  Human 416 

Reasoning 423 

"         Mathematical 424 

"         Moral 424 

Reptiles,  Orders  of. 239 

Reviewing  Form  Lessons 81 

"          Lessons  on  Color 102 

Rhinoceros 221 

River 53 

Robin 190 

Roots,  Shapes  of 256 

S. 

Sago 144 

Salt 150 

Sandstone 274 

Science  of  Common  Things 331 

"        "  Education,    Introduc- 
tion   341 

Sea-lion 223 

Seeing 367 

Seeds  of  Grain-bearing  Plants. . .  168 


INDEX. 


469 


Seeds  of  Pod- bearing  Plants. Page  169 

"      How  they  Grow 248 

Sensations 365 

Sense,  Organs  of 367 

"       Classification  of    Knowl- 
edge gained  by  the 374 

Senses,  The 364 

Sentiments 430 

School  Discipline 317 

"             "         Facts  to  be  Re- 
membered    320 

School  Government,  Will  a  Power 

in 449 

Sheep 210 

Shoemaker 287 

Silk 159 

Smelling 372 

Snail 192 

Soap 153 

Soda 151 

Sound 334 

Sparrows 227 

Specific  Gravity 337 

Spider 196 

Substances,  Lessons  to  develop 

Ideas  of 126 

Substances,  Classes  and  Kinds  of  127 

"  Elements  of 278 

"            Materials     for     Ad- 
vanced Lessons  on  Objects 136 

Substances,  Notes  of  Lessons  on.  157 
"  Subjects  for  Lessons 

on 166 

Substances,  Suggestions  for  Les- 
sons   137 

Sugar 146 

Sympathy 405 

T. 

Tailor 286 

Tapioca 145 


Tasting Page  373 

Teaching,  Complete   Fitness  for  349 

Tinsmith 291 

Toad 194 

Touch 371 

Trades 28:3 

"      Lessons  on 285-287 

Training  the  Moral  Powers 431 

"    Will 446 

Truthfulness 434 

V. 

Valley 54 

Village 56 

Vision, Phenomena  of. «...  108 


W. 

Water 59,336 

Weight 67 

"        Exercises     to     develop 

Ideas  of 68 

Weight,  Facts    about,   for    the 

Teacher 70 

Weight,  Necessity  of  Standard  . .     70 
"        of  Objects — Comparative    72 

Tables  of 70 

Whale 224 

Whalebone 155 

What  people  do— Trades,  etc. ...  284 

Whippoorwill 226 

Will,  a  Power  in  School  Govern- 
ment    449 

Will,  Freedom  of 446 

"     Influence  of,  on  Character  445 

"     training  the 446 

"     —What  is  it  ? 443 

Willing,  Power  of 443 

Wolf 208 

Woodpecker 225 

Wool..  .  159 


THE    END. 


CALKINS'S  PRIMARY  OBJECT 


PRIMARY  OBJECT  LESSONS,  FOR  TRAINING  THE 
SENSES  AND  DEVELOPING  THE  FACULTIES  OF 
CHILDREN.  A  Manual  of  Elementary  Instruction  for  Par- 
ents and  Teachers.  By  N.  A.  CALKINS.  Fifteenth  Edition. 
Re-written  and  Enlarged.  12 mo,  Cloth,  $1  00. 

"Instruction  must  begin  with  actual  inspection,  not  with  verbal  descrip- 
tions of  things.  From  such  inspection  it  is  that  certain  knowledge  comes. 
What  is  actually  seen  remains  faster  in  the  memory  than  description  or 
enumeration  a  hundred  times  as  often  repeated."  Thus  wrote  Johi^Amos 
Comenius,  an  exiled  teacher  of  Austria,  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  And  to  the  introduction  of  his  works  Germany  is  largely  indebt- 
ed for  the  great  progress  in  her  schools  which  commenced  during  that  cen- 
tury. Said  the  great  Swiss  educator,  Pestalozzi,  at  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  "  Observation  is  the  absolute  basis  of  all  knowledge.  The 
first  object,  then,  in  education  must  be  to  lead  a  child  to  observe  with  accu- 
racy ;  the  second,  to  express  with  correctness  the  result  of  his  observa- 
tions." On  the  philosophical  principles  taught  by  those  two  great  educa- 
tors, and  confirmed  by  the  experiences  of  subsequent  observers,  is  based  the 
system  of  mental  development  illustrated  in  the  present  work. 

The  work  differs  from  others  prepared  for  teachers  in  this  important  feat- 
ure :  it  illustrates  how  the  teacher  should  proceed  at  each  successive  step 
in  developing  the  minds  of  children.  In  telling  what  ought  to  be  done,  it  pro- 
ceeds to  show  how  to  do  it  by  illustrative  examples. 

The  present  edition  of  the  Primary  Object  Lessons  has  been  entirely  re- 
written, re-illustrated,  and  enlarged.  It  is  essentially  a  new  work. 

The  difference  between  the  lessons  of  this  and  former  editions  consists 
chiefly  in  the  methods  of  giving  them ;  the  principles  of  the  system  on  which 
they  are  founded  remain  unchanged. 

This  work  embodies  the  results  of  the  author's  experience  of  nearly  eight 
years  as  a  Superintendent  of  the  Primary  Schools  in  the  City  of  New  York. 

It  is  intended  to  present  a  course  of  instruction  b}r  the  system  of  Object 
Teaching,  embracing  the  period  and  the  methods  of  elementary  training 
necessary  to  fit  youth  for  the  acquisition  of  such  knowledge  from  books  and 
from  nature  as  will  prepare  them  for  the  duties  of  subsequent  life. 

It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  professional  teacher. 


PUBLISHED  BY  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  NEW  YORK. 

B^~  HABPEB  &  BROTHERS  will  send  the  above  work  by  mail,  postage  prepaid,  to  a 
part  of  the  United  States,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


METHODS   OF  TEACHING. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  A  Hand -Book  of  Principles, 
Directions,  and  Working  Models,  for  Common-School  Teach- 
ers. By  JOHN  SWETT,  Principal  of  the  San  Francisco  Girls' 
High  School  and  Normal  Class.  12mo,  Half  Leather,  $1  25. 

An  admirably  sensible  and  suggestive  hand-book  of  principles  and  work- 
ing models  of  methods  of  teaching.  It  is  the  work  of  an  experienced  and 
earnest  teacher  who  seeks  here  to  give  to  other  earnest  teachers  the  best 
results  of  his  experience.  *  *  *  His  views  arc  thoroughly  enlightened  and 
liberal,  and  his  book  is  rich  in  suggestions  which  every  earnest  teacher  will 
welcome. — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

The  work  embodies  the  most  progressive  kind  of  teaching,  and  is  marked 
by  sound  common-sense. — Providence  Journal. 

One  can  hardly  open  the  book  without  iinding  something  that  would  be 
of  value  to  teacher  or  pupil. — Rochester  Express. 

One  of  the  best  practical  works  on  education  ever  published  in  this  coun- 
try.—  Utica  Herald. 

The  theory  of  education  on  which  the  book  is  written  is  a  sound  and 
healthy  one,  and  does  not  propose  to  achieve  by  pictures  and  general  good 
nature  what  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  enthusiasm  developed  under 
hard  drill. — Independent,  N.  Y. 

The  book  is  replete  with  common-sense,  and  its  practical  directions  are 
clear  and  precise. — N.  Y.  Evening  Mail. 

The  author  of  this  volume  deals  with  the  subject  of  our  common  schools, 
their  advantages  and  defects,  and  the  best  methods  of  remedying  the  latter, 
in  a  practical  manner  that  places  his  work  far  in  advance  of  the  general  av- 
erage of  those  on  education. — N.  Y.  Times. 

It  speaks  with  the  emphasis  of  experience,  and  to  the  thoughtful  teacher 
who  aims  to  learn  the  best  ways  and  to  employ  them,  it  is  calculated  to  be 
a  real  help. — Troy  Budget. 

In  every  way  the  work  is  interesting  and  instructive  in  a  high  degree. — 
Wisconsin  State  Journal. 

Few  better  books  for  educational  purposes  have  seen  the  light. — Boston 
Commonwealth. 

In  every  page  of  this  work  the  reader  feels  that  he  is  under  the  guidance 
of  a  master.—  N.  Y.  Herald. 

We  recommend  it  as  a  practical  hand-book,  worthy  a  place  on  any  teach- 
er's table. — Literary  World,  Boston. 

A  fresh,  practical  presentation  of  the  directions  most  needed  by  our  pub- 
lic school  teachers. — San  Francisco  Bulletin. 

Deals  directly  with  the  practical  needs  of  the  school-room,  and  cannot  fail 
to  be  of  great  service  to  all  who  are  interested  in  or  engaged  with  the  busi- 
ness of  education.—  Boston  Evening  Transcript. 


PUBLISHED  BY  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  NEW  YORK. 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS  will  send  the  above  ivork  by  mail,  postage  prepaid,  to  any 
part  of  the  United  Slates,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


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